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WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE: THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES

It would be nice if we could say that William Shakespeare wrote
King Lear when he himself was at an advanced age.  We could
picture him becoming concerned with retirement and the disposal
of his property and goods.  But the theory collapses when you
realize that Shakespeare was only 41 years old when the first
performance of King Lear was recorded in an official document.

Besides, the plot line, involving two older men and their
respective family problems, is only a small part of the play.
King Lear is about much, much more and undoubtedly reflects
deeper concerns that Shakespeare had developed in his already
considerable experience as a playwright.

By the time he wrote King Lear, this adventurous young man from
Stratford had led a remarkable life, even for Elizabethan times,
which we tend to think of as more exciting than our own.  During
the reign of Elizabeth I, England experienced a period of
relative stability and, more important, prosperity.  All the
arts flourished, but the growth of drama was nothing short of
phenomenal.  At the zenith of Elizabeth's power and influence,
William Shakespeare came to London and wrote the 37 plays that
have established him as the greatest playwright in the English
language.

How did it all begin?  What purpose drove him to produce this
incredible body of work?  Where did his inspiration come from?

There are many theories about Shakespeare, but very little that
is known for certain.  He was born in 1564 and raised in
Stratford-on-Avon, some 100 miles from London.  His father was a
successful middle-class tradesman and had even held public
office.  Young Will attended local schools, which means he
received a good, substantial education.  It gave him a
background in the classics as well as proficiency in the three
"Rs."

At 18, William married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior.
She subsequently bore a daughter, Susanna, and shortly
afterward, twins, Hamnet and Judith.

How the young husband provided for his family during the first
years of marriage is unknown.  A strong tradition holds that he
was employed locally as a schoolteacher, but there is no
evidence to prove it.

We do know that he left Stratford sometime in his mid-20s and
settled in London.  There he first came to notice as a poet, the
writer of two long poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of
Lucrece.  These poems were favorably received and launched his
reputation.

About the same time, he turned his attention to the theater.  He
wrote one tragedy, Titus Andronicus, but most of his earliest
plays were comedies, including The Comedy of Errors, Two
Gentlemen of Verona, Love's Labor's Lost, and The Taming of the
Shrew.  Romantic comedy, satire, farce--all flowed from his pen
at the outset of his career.  They concerned relationships among
lovers, friends, families, but they didn't plumb the depths.

Overlapping the production of these comedies were his earliest
history plays.  Toward the end of the 16th century Shakespeare
produced the series of four great historical works that remain
the pinnacle of his achievement in that type of theater--Richard
II; Henry IV, Part I; Henry IV, Part II; and Henry V.

As the years wore on, Shakespeare turned from his interest in
politics and the glorification of England to more profound
comedies.  Two of the best known, Measure for Measure and All's
Well that Ends Well, show an interest in darker human
behavior.

It's not surprising, then, that the greatest of Shakespeare's
tragedies were also written during this period, the first decade
of the new century.  Now the poet-playwright was at the absolute
height of his powers, and one brilliant drama followed the
next--Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, all written and
performed within a few short years.

Shakespeare was still relatively young, but he had matured.  He
was a playwright of some repute, and also an actor who performed
both in his own plays and in plays by others.  He could very
well afford to look around and question why everything in life
wasn't perfect and rosy.

King Lear examines a broad range of philosophic ideas.  There's
a somber tone and not much frivolity in the play.  But the
playwright in Shakespeare knew he couldn't simply stage a dull
discussion of abstract notions.  And so he told a story in order
to hold the audience's attention and to get his points across.
The play explores more profound themes than any of Shakespeare's
tragedies, but it also offers a central figure of such heroic
proportion that our attention is riveted to him and his fate.
When you read the play today, or see it performed, you can't
help but be moved by the powerful speech Shakespeare puts into
the mouths of his characters--speech so rich and poetic that
some readers refer to King Lear as Shakespeare's greatest
poem.

Shakespeare continued to write tragedies--Coriolanus, Macbeth,
Antony and Cleopatra--but he found the world of myth a better
setting for his developing interests.  A new type of play, the
romantic tragicomedy, began to appear--The Winter's Tale, The
Tempest, Cymbeline.

Shakespeare's involvement with a theatrical company called the
King's Men--both as actor and playwright--kept him active until
1613, when the Globe Theatre in which the company performed
burned down.  Perhaps he took it as an omen, but Shakespeare
returned at about that time to Stratford, where he spent his
final years.  He died on April 23, 1616, at the age of 52.

William Shakespeare never lived to be as old as Lear.  Nor was
he ever a king.  But his rich imagination and talent enabled him
to create a world so true that we can enter it even today.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  THE PLOT

There are really two plots in King Lear, a main plot and a fully
developed subplot.  Each has its own set of characters.

In the main plot, there is the head of the family, the
80-plus-year-old king of Britain, Lear.  He has three daughters,
Goneril, Regan, and Cordelia.  The Duke of Albany is married to
the oldest, Goneril, and the Duke of Cornwall is married to
Regan, the middle daughter.  Cordelia has two suitors, the Duke
of Burgundy and the King of France.  The court jester, the Fool,
is by extension a member of the Lear family and part of the main
plot, as is the Earl of Kent, Lear's loyal follower.

The Earl of Gloucester, also a member of Lear's court, is the
head of another family and the focus of the subplot.  He has two
offspring, an older, legitimate son named Edgar and a younger,
illegitimate or bastard son named Edmund.

Various minor characters appear from time to time.  They are
easily identified by their connections with whatever main
character they serve or speak of.

As the play opens, Lear has decided to retire and divide his
kingdom among his three daughters.  Cordelia's husband will be
chosen for her immediately after Lear executes this "living
will." Before he allots the shares, Lear asks each daughter to
make a profession of her love for him in order to receive her
entitlement.  Goneril and Regan waste no time professing love
for their father, but Cordelia is speechless.  She loves her
father as any daughter should, no more and no less.  Lear is
outraged by what he sees as her lack of devotion.  He cuts
Cordelia out of her share and banishes her.  Her share is
divided between Goneril and Regan.  Lear gives them everything
but keeps a retinue, a following of 100 knights who will
accompany him as he alternates monthly visits between his two
daughters.  Cordelia's suitors are called in.  Without a dowry,
Burgundy rejects her; but the King of France sees her true worth
and leads Cordelia off to marriage and his protection.

At Gloucester's castle, Edmund reveals that he will not let his
illegitimate birth and older brother prevent him from inheriting
his father's estate.  He devises a plan to convince Gloucester
that Edgar is secretly planning to kill his father to get his
hands on the family property and enjoy it while he's still
young.  Edmund then tells Edgar that their father is after him
for some mistaken notion of a reported crime.  Eventually
Gloucester is convinced of Edgar's treachery and seeks to put
his older son to death.  Edgar flees for his life.

Meanwhile, Lear discovers that living with his two daughters is
no joy.  He is so outraged by their cruel behavior toward him
that he curses them and rushes out into a violent storm.  During
his exposure to the elements he is accompanied by Kent, the Fool
(his court jester), and eventually by Edgar, who has disguised
himself as a lunatic beggar named "poor Tom."

Gloucester tries to help Lear and his followers but is betrayed
to Cornwall and Regan by Edmund.  As punishment, Gloucester is
blinded and sent out into the storm, too.  Edgar, still
disguised, discovers his blind father and leads him to Dover,
where he joins Lear, who has gone mad from exposure to the
elements and the anguish he has suffered at the hands of his
daughters.

The news of Lear's treatment had reached Cordelia, and the King
of France has sent an invading force to England to help restore
Lear's rights to him.  In Dover, where they have landed,
Cordelia finds Lear and helps to restore his sanity by loving
care.

While preparing to fight the French invaders, Goneril and Regan
have developed a passion for Edmund.  But before they can do
anything about it, the battle is fought.  The French lose, and
Lear and Cordelia are taken prisoners.

Edmund sends Lear and Cordelia to prison with orders for them to
be secretly killed.  When Albany enters, he accuses Edmund of
treason for plotting with Goneril against him and the interests
of the state.  Edmund is given the chance to defend his honor in
a duel.  Edgar appears in a new disguise to take up this
challenge and mortally wounds Edmund.  Goneril sees the
handwriting on the wall and flees from the scene.  Edmund
confesses all his crimes as a servant enters and announces that
Goneril has poisoned Regan and killed herself.  Edmund then
reveals that he has ordered Lear's and Cordelia's deaths.
Albany sends soldiers to prevent it, but he's too late.  Lear
enters carrying the dead Cordelia in his arms.  As he weeps for
her, surrounded by the bodies of Goneril and Regan, the
survivors can only stare in respectful awe.

Albany, the victor of the battle, relinquishes rule of the
country to Kent and Edgar, but the worn-out Kent doesn't accept.
Edgar is left to restore order in England as the bodies of the
dead are carried away.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  SOURCES

There may well have been an ancient king of Britain named Lear.
And he may have had daughters to whom he relinquished his
kingdom and his authority when he retired at an early age.  But
we can only speculate about these people because there is no
historic record of such a ruler.  Lear may be only a popular
myth.

By the time Shakespeare came to write about Lear, there were
several available versions of the story.  We know that
Holinshed's Chronicles, Shakespeare's source for several of his
histories, contained a Lear story.  There was also another play
performed at that time called The True Chronicle History of King
Leir.  The author is unknown, but there is a record of its
performance in London in 1594, some 12 years before
Shakespeare's King Lear appeared.  Edmund Spenser's great epic
poem The Faerie Queen also includes the Lear story.

Some fine points differ in these stories, but Shakespeare's
version is unique in one uncontestable aspect:  the others had
happy endings.  Some even had a sequel showing how the "happily
ever after" turned out!  And none had the Gloucester subplot.
Shakespeare took the outline of this story from a contemporary
romance, Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia.  He changed names and
adapted its theme of filial ingratitude as a parallel to
reinforce the tension and impact of his main plot.

Since he was concerned with tragedy, not history, Shakespeare
was free to take whatever liberties he chose in order to shape
the drama to his purpose.  And that was his story of King
Lear.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  KING LEAR

The title character of this play is unquestionably its dominant
figure.  Although the name "Lear" comes from some ruler who may
never have actually lived, Shakespeare has created a
flesh-and-blood monarch whose actions and reactions determine
the main course of events in the play.

You must remember that Lear is first of all a king.  He is now
in his 80s and is accustomed to all the power, the authority,
the responsibilities, and the privileges of an absolute monarch.
In our age, when such total rule is rare, we might not really
comprehend what that means.  But if you think back to every
story of every king you've ever heard about, even fairy-tale
monarchs, you'll have some idea of how the Elizabethans felt
about a king.

As a man, Lear is the ruler of a family.  To the Elizabethans,
the family unit was just a miniature version of the government.
So the power and authority of the father was given the same
respect.

In a world where the life expectancy was much lower than our
own, 80 was an exceptional age to attain.  When King Lear was
first performed, Queen Elizabeth I had only recently died at age
70.  So as a "geriatric," not much would have been expected of
Lear.  Still, retirement was unknown.  The tradition of the day
was that you worked as long as you were able.

From the moment Lear announces his retirement, we have to keep
an eye on him to detect any sign of weakness or infirmity, to
see if the action is justified.  The physical strength it took
to survive the fierce storm would appear to contradict such a
view.  Even his final act of carrying in the body of Cordelia is
quite an achievement for an 80-year-old.

But what about his mind--the moodiness, the rash judgments, the
rage?  Are these the telltale signs of old age or senility?  You
have to decide for yourself when Lear is in his right mind, when
he is being manipulative, and when he is actually mad.

Lear is never entirely alone on the stage; he is attended by
someone even in his most contemplative moments.  But Shakespeare
has given him such an aura that the spotlight is always on him
and he is always in focus.  We can examine his every word and
every move microscopically.

Observe the skill with which he tries to manipulate his
daughters.  Notice how he rouses our sympathy with references to
himself as "tired," "poor," and "old." You'll notice that Lear
really only acts in the first scene and that all the rest is
reaction.  But it is the most skillful reaction imaginable since
it never fails to hold our interest and attention.

In the final analysis, Lear himself must be judged on several
counts.  He undoubtedly triggered the forces that brought
England to the brink of civil war.  It took a foreign invasion
to restore authority and order.  This makes Lear guilty of
something.  But is the suffering he endures, the extent of his
punishment and final loss, deserved?  As you watch his progress
through the play, you alone must decide whether he is indeed,
"...a man / More sinn'd against than sinning" (III, ii,
59-60).

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  CORDELIA

The stubborn streak that Lear's youngest daughter exhibits in
the first scene is the one saving gesture that redeems Cordelia
from being "too good to be true."

We don't know much about Cordelia except that she is her
father's favorite.  As a princess, she obviously has led a
privileged life, but it doesn't appear to have spoiled her as it
has her older sisters.

Cordelia is not stupid.  She may not be wise enough to avoid
losing her share of Lear's kingdom, but she can speak up when
her honor as well as interest are at stake.  She makes sure that
the King of France does not get the wrong idea about her error
of judgment and consider it a crime.

Although she disappears from the stage after the first scene and
doesn't return until the last scene of the fourth act, her image
is kept before us and periodically polished.  This leads to
great expectations.  Still, we're not disappointed when she does
return to the stage.  From that point on she is the soul of
gentleness and goodness in her devotion to her aged father and
his welfare.

By endowing Cordelia with such powerful virtue, Shakespeare
seems to be indulging us in our eternal wish for the ultimate
fairy-tale princess.  We want her to make everything come out an
right.  Because it doesn't, despite her noble efforts, her last
moments on the stage are all the more poignant.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  GONERIL

In terms of pure evil, it may be difficult to distinguish Lear's
two older daughters from each other.  But these are not
identical twins.  Goneril, whom we get to know first, is the
firstborn and has an imperious manner not unlike Lear's.  Highly
intelligent, she has long been aware of her father's moodiness,
and she decides to play it for all it's worth.  Although she
conspires initially with her sister Regan to protect their
mutual interests, greed gets the better of her.  When it
combines with lust, there's no stopping this powerful force.
When she is confronted with evidence of her treachery by her
husband, she sneers, "Who can arraign me for't?" (V, iii,
160.)

As one of the three principal villains in King Lear, Goneril
does her share to provide a broad picture of evil.  And if you
think she is cruel only in her behavior to her father, listen to
her conversations with her husband and her recommendation for
Gloucester's punishment.  Finally, of course, who else would
stoop to poison as a means of getting what she wants?

In her fancy clothes, Goneril couldn't care less about degrading
her father with haggling over the size of his retinue.  She is
interested only in "looking after number one." And when there is
no longer a way out, when she is utterly trapped in the web she
has spun, only she will have the final say.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  REGAN

The cruelty and the evil inherent in Regan are harder to detect
at first.  We may be taken in as much as Lear is by her sugary
words.  This second daughter is extremely well spoken.  She uses
words as a tool and a weapon more craftily than her older
sister.

As the middle child, Regan is less accustomed to initiating; she
usually follows her older sister's lead, particularly if it
serves her self-interest.  When Lear turns to her after he has
been turned out by Goneril, we can see why Regan doesn't rush to
welcome him.  But the force in her rejection of his request, her
denial of any comfort, and her instant willingness to turn this
old man out into the violent storm remind us that there is evil
just below her sweet exterior.

Regan is more the stiletto to Goneril's sword.  Even though
Regan schemes, she is faithful in her marriage.  And she kills
only to try to save her husband's life.  But she can be vicious
and strong willed.  She is capable of terrifying venom when she
unleashes her fury.

If her thirst for power is her primary motivation, her powerful
lust is her eventual undoing.  All we can do is speculate as to
whether she wanted Edmund for his body or as a partner in a
future struggle for rule over England.  But because Regan is
always "number two, she dies without knowing that her lover
could never have won the battle she would have waged.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  GLOUCESTER

Gloucester is a counterpoint to Lear.  There are as many
parallels as there are differences between them, though they are
in similar circumstances by the end of the play.

Like Lear, Gloucester is elderly.  He is gullible and easily
taken in by his son Edmund.  But Gloucester is no weak, infirm
geriatric either.  He braves the storm repeatedly to bring
creature comforts to his king and master.  And even after being
blinded, he is capable of enduring the long trek to Dover.

Unlike Lear, Gloucester is more the "average man." He speaks
plainly, with little indulgence in fancy rhetoric.  He doesn't
really concern himself with philosophic matters until he is
pushed almost to the limit of his endurance.  Gloucester doesn't
ask a lot of questions.  He has faith in astrology much the same
way he trusts Fortune.

He must have served Lear in some senior court capacity for some
time, since he isn't easily disturbed by the ebb and flow of
politics.  But when forced to get involved, he isn't very good
at it, and ultimately suffers for his lack of cunning.

This good-natured man is also not particularly perceptive about
his children.  From the very beginning, when he jokes about
Edmund's birth in front of his illegitimate son, Gloucester is
singularly lacking in vision.

But Gloucester can be very brave.  He is willing to risk his
life for the king and the order and stability that Lear
represents for him.

As the protagonist of the subplot, Gloucester is its pivot.
Like Goneril and Regan--Lear's daughters who exude
evil--Gloucester's son Edmund is also evil.  To what degree is
Gloucester responsible for this evil?  And is his punishment in
due proportion to his "crime"?  Answering these questions will
give you greater insight into the main plot's similar situation
and Lear's own final judgment.  And that, of course, is one of
the great services the character of Gloucester performs in King
Lear.  That he can arouse emotions and stimulate our interest in
his own predicament is a testimony to the craftsmanship of the
playwright who created him.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  EDMUND

Edmund and Edgar are two sides of one coin.  To say that one of
these sons of the Earl of Gloucester has a particular trait is
to claim the opposite of the other.  Yet Shakespeare develops
each character fully.

Edmund's villainy is obvious as soon as we see him alone on
stage and listen to what he has to say.  But during our very
first introduction at the start of the play, he looks like a
victim twice over.  Not only is he the product of an illicit
liaison, but duty makes him stand by while his father cracks
jokes about his birth.  Is it any wonder that Edmund has turned
out the way he has?

Still, for all his carping about his illegitimacy, the trouble
he causes and his treacherous behavior seem well beyond the
point of fair compensation.  Edmund's glib tongue works hard to
persuade us that he's doing only what he must.  It reveals a
keen intelligence within his warped mind.  Combined with his
overpowering ambition, this intelligence makes Edmund capable of
seizing every opportunity that comes his way.

The passion of Lear's older daughters is something this young
adventurer barely acknowledges.  He allows Fate to decide which
one shall have him.  Is this a more mature Edmund giving a nod
to higher powers?

To observe Edmund's villainy throughout King Lear is to see more
than a case study in evil.  It also reveals the twisted path of
a tortured soul.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  EDGAR

We probably see more facets of Gloucester's older son than of
any other character in King Lear.  He ranges from the insipid
dupe we meet at the beginning of Act I, Scene ii, to the heroic
heir to the kingdom in the final scene.  In between we discover
a lot about Edgar, primarily through his own speech and action.
Very little is said to him except the slanderous comments of the
bastard, Edmund.  Considering the source, they are almost
endearing.

Throughout the play we see an Edgar who has faith in the gods
and their justice.  Still, when troubles arise, he can think and
act for himself.  As the madman beggar, an imaginative notion to
begin with, he acts the part well enough to deceive his father
and godfather.  And, while running wildly about in his fake
madness, he manages to comfort Lear and provide extraordinary
assistance for Gloucester.

We may ridicule Edgar's stupidity for allowing Edmund to drive
him from his home, but we have to admire his achievement of
stature at the end.  There are difficult journeys for many
characters in King Lear, and Edgar's is not an easy one.  But it
is ultimately and deservedly rewarding.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ALBANY

Another significant contrast in the play is Albany.  He is
almost as unlike his brother-in-law, Cornwall, as Gloucester's
two sons are different.

It is easy to see why the alliance between the two poles of
Albany and Cornwall would never last.  Not only are their names
opposites--Albany was the ancient name for Scotland, and
Cornwall is located in the southwestern-most part of England--so
are their temperaments.  The hot and fiery Cornwall could never
be compatible with the cool, calm Albany.

The foul-mouthed Goneril calls her husband Albany cowardly, but
he doesn't display any lack of courage.  He's enough of a
military commander to win a significant victory.  And he's ready
to meet Edmund in one-on-one combat.  More than courageous,
Albany is decisive when something must be done.

Altogether, Albany is an admirable character and a fitting
champion for justice.  The decency of his behavior makes his
wife's crueller nature stand out in bold relief.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  CORNWALL

As befits the role of son-in-law, especially to a king, Cornwall
hasn't much to say or do when we first see him.  He is willing
to stand by and get his fair share as Lear parcels out the
kingdom.

When we first meet him on his own turf, as a guest but
nevertheless as Gloucester's "arch and patron," he is assertive
and authoritative.  In a matter of moments he has taken things
over and is making all the important decisions.

Cornwall is evil, but certainly not a coward.  It takes him a
while, but he does own up to Lear that he had Kent put into the
stocks.  And he's ready to defend that action.

In his own mind, Cornwall is a fair judge.  Having decided from
Edmund's report that Gloucester is a traitor, he makes a pass at
giving the old man a chance to speak for himself.  But getting
nowhere and not discovering anything new, Cornwall doesn't
hesitate to execute the sentence with zest.

For all the violence, tempest, rage, anger, and horror in the
play, only one pair of hands in King Lear is really bloodied.
That they are Cornwall's is a mark and measure of his villainy.
He is, after all, a fitting partner for the cruel Regan.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  KENT

Kent is the ideal first mate to the commander of the ship of
state.  From the moment we meet him and observe his tactful
response to Gloucester's bawdy chatter, we know we can rely on
this good man.  It doesn't take long for us to become better
acquainted.

When Lear banishes Cordelia, and Kent speaks up in her behalf,
he is bold but courteous.  And he sticks to his guns, even at
the risk of his own banishment.

The measure of his devotion to his master, the king, is shown by
his assumption of a disguise.  This enables him to continue in
Lear's service.

There are several additional facets of Kent's personality.  He
can be hotheaded, as in the outburst that infuriates Lear in the
very first scene.  And his treatment of Oswald is hardly gentle.
Kent even shows a sense of humor in his lengthy description of
Goneril's steward.

Kent is not a great philosopher, but he does acknowledge that
there are greater forces determining our fates.  He endures
disfavor and discomfort stoically.

His devotion and faithfulness are always in our minds.  In the
midst of the final turmoil, we still have compassion for Kent
when he tells us that he cannot fulfill the only formal request
made of him.  He cannot share the responsibility for restoring
order to England because he is nearing his own end.  Who would
deny him his final rest and reward?

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  THE FOOL

Although he is an oddity to us, the Fool was greeted by an
Elizabethan audience with great familiarity.  The monarch in
Shakespeare's time may not have had an official court jester,
but the position was a historic one.  In conventional drama of
the day, as a holdover from morality plays of earlier days and
the traveling stock companies that wandered the countryside, the
role was classic.  A Fool had established characteristics and
responsibilities.

Among them, the Fool had license to roam the stage and approach
the audience family, often joking with them and talking directly
to them.  He acted as a bridge between the action on stage and
the audience's own experience.  We might think of this today as
"low comedy," but it was welcome in its day.  The better the
Fool, the greater his popularity with the "groundlings"--those
members of the audience who stood directly around the stage
(today's closest equivalent would be the fans seated in the
bleachers of the ballpark).

Shakespeare exploits this aspect of the Fool to make him a
character in the play as well as a commentator on the action,
much the way the chorus functioned in Greek tragedy.

The notion of the Fool providing comic relief is difficult to
see in the darkness of King Lear, but such relief does occur.
This is not the thigh-slapping humor we might expect, but is
more colorful relief in the very presence of the Fool as well as
his bits of light verse, songs, riddles, etc.  The role demands
an actor physically nimble, adept at tongue-twisting speech,
quick at comebacks, and intelligent enough to let the Fool's
performance speak for itself.

Tradition has it that the Fool in Elizabethan tragedy is the
instructor of the wise man.  Speaking in riddles, the Fool
repeatedly reminds Lear of his folly, which we know to be the
truth.  As such, the Fool is our champion, giving vent to our
thoughts and emotions.  No wonder audiences can't help loving
the Fool.  It is probably just as well that we don't see the
Fool give up the ghost.  Though it can be dramatically
justified, we still miss the Fool during the latter half of the
play.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  OSWALD

The role of Goneril's steward is another holdover from earlier
forms of drama.  Shakespeare has, however, adapted this stock
character to his own purpose in King Lear.

Oswald is not completely the traditional two-dimensional buffoon
and cowardly servant.  He is brave enough, or firm enough, to
resist Regan's attempt to pry information from him.  Is this
loyalty to Goneril?  Or is it the blind following of
instructions?  Even when he is slain, he is true to his mission,
asking his executioner to forward the messages he carries.

But Oswald is all too ready to conspire with Goneril and share
her villainy.  He is delighted to carry out her order to snub
Lear and his retinue.  In fact, it was his complaint that
started the trouble between Goneril and Lear.

Of course, Oswald is really nothing compared to the arch
villains of this play.  Edgar has the ultimate say after he has
disposed of his father's would-be killer:

I know thee well:  a serviceable villain;

As duteous to the vices of thy mistress

As badness would desire.

(Act IV, Scene vi, lines 248-50)

That sums up Oswald.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  SETTING

King Lear takes place in mythological, prehistoric England.  It
begins in Lear's palace but never returns to that spot.  Once
the action starts to move, it doesn't stop until the last note
of the recessional is sounded.

Geography isn't really important, although it does figure in the
play.  We know we are somewhere to the north at Albany's castle
when Lear first quarrels with Goneril.  Later we move to
Gloucester's castle, within and outside the walls.

We can't miss knowing when we are outside in a storm, and it's
obvious when we move inside to some form of shelter.  The lack
of changeable scenery made it necessary to be nonspecific, but
the Elizabethan platform stage with its recess in the rear
allowed for certain suggestions of movement and place.

Eventually, the action moves to the southeast of England.  Edgar
guides the blind Gloucester toward Dover, where the king's party
has already been sent.  Eventually the two meet.

The French have obviously landed in that area, and Cordelia
catches up with Lear and has him brought to her camp to rest.
It is not far from there that the final battle is fought and the
action of the play is resolved.

The rapid flow of events in King Lear makes what is happening
infinitely more interesting than where it takes place.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  THEMES

There is a wide range of themes running through King Lear.
Often they are straightforward, but just as frequently they are
buried or seemingly contradictory.  It's important to remember
that Shakespeare makes many points by parallel or contrasting
words and actions.  If something is significant in the main
plot, it will probably turn up in some fashion in the subplot,
and vice versa.

Some of the important themes are:

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  THE FOLLY OF OLD AGE--THE INGRATITUDE OF
YOUTH

Lear's division of his kingdom, his "early retirement,"
unleashes the forces that lead ultimately to the catastrophic
ending of the play.  Gloucester is no less responsible for his
calamity, for being rash in his judgment of his older son and
blindly trusting his younger.  Are these men senile?  How much
of the suffering that they endure do they deserve?

And considering how they are abused by their fathers, don't
Edgar and Goneril deserve some sympathy, some satisfaction?
Regan, too--should she have to put up with her father's rowdy
entourage?  Or are these, indeed, thankless children?  Do they
try to grab more than is rightfully theirs?

There are several references to how "golden-agers" should be
looked after by their children.  What do you think of those
making the comments, as well as those they're discussing?  How
you feel, how your sympathies shift, will affect your attitude
toward the ending of King Lear.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  GOOD AND EVIL

With the exception of momentary lapses, the good characters in
this play are all very good, and the bad characters are quite
evil.  Other than the heads of the two families, Lear and
Gloucester, there is little growth or development.  But those
characters undergo such profound experiences that there is
enough internal activity to keep the play moving forward.

Other characters talk about benign or malevolent forces, but
Lear wrestles with them head-on.  His plunge into insanity is
marked by his ever-increasing awareness of the presence of good
and evil in areas he had never before considered.  And even the
generally placid Gloucester exhibits new awareness as he
proceeds toward his final moment.

Since the play ends with the death of all those we have come to
love, except those who must carry on, it has been called a study
in pessimism.  Do you accept that judgment?  Or do you see
redeeming aspects?  Is the play only about a struggle between
good and evil or is there a broader interpretation?

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  NATURE

Shakespeare's concept of nature in King Lear is a kaleidoscopic
picture of the prevailing Elizabethan attitude.  It is not
always the picture we expect, but all the pieces are there.

The Elizabethans viewed nature as order.  It consisted of a
universe in which there was an established hierarchy; everything
had its own relative position.  Heaven, the Divine Being, and
the stars and planets were all above.  On earth, the king was at
the head of the class structure, with the nobles next, and on
down to the peasantry, and beneath them were the lowliest
humans:  beggars, lunatics, and so on.  Below that came the
animals.

When this order was disturbed, things were considered unnatural
or "monstrous." Chaos ruled the unnatural, and malevolent forces
were involved.

There are constant references to nature and unnatural things and
forces throughout the play.  Shakespeare was deeply concerned
with this concept and stretched it to the limit in King Lear.
Did he finally believe that such a system existed and operated
in the determination of man's fate?  Your interpretation of the
play should provide you with the answer to this question.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  VISION AND BLINDNESS

There are more overt references to vision and blindness than
almost any other theme.  There are subtle variations woven
through the drama, too.  Obviously, when someone is behaving
intelligently, he has vision.  Conversely, he acts blindly when
he does something foolish.

You may notice what seem to be contradictions.  For example,
madness is folly and should produce blindness.  But in the midst
of Lear's madness, he comes up with some provocative insights.
What does this tell us?

Don't come to a hasty conclusion about the theme of vision and
blindness.  Evaluate the obvious references in the text, and
consider the theme as it applies to the characters' actions
throughout the play.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  STYLE

A new student of Shakespeare will find King Lear quite different
from any contemporary play.  Elizabethan drama had its own set
of rules, and Shakespeare was guided, if not bound, by most of
them.

Most noticeable is the somewhat formal speech in verse.  You may
have heard about Shakespeare's iambic pentameter, which is
nothing more than a description of a poetic form--a five-beat
line with a stress on every second syllable.  It's used
frequently, though not exclusively, in King Lear.  This was
simply Shakespeare's way of approximating the sound of
upperclass speech or the way it was believed serious matters
should sound when discussed.  In addition, there is his use of
verse.  Poetry gave him the opportunity to say a lot in a few
words.

Don't read the dialogue in a singsong pattern.  Just read it
straight through and let the punctuation guide you to the rests
and stopping points.  After a while it will become as natural as
reading prose.

Shakespeare breaks the monotony of the verse with prose speech
when appropriate.  How certain forms are used at certain times
can be very revealing.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH

All languages change.  Differences in pronunciation and word
choice are apparent even between parents and their children.  If
language differences can appear in one generation, it is only to
be expected that the English used by Shakespeare four hundred
years ago will diverge markedly from the English that is used
today.  The following information on Shakespeare's language will
help a modern reader to a fuller understanding of King Lear.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  MOBILITY OF WORD CLASSES

Adjectives, nouns, and verbs were less rigidly confined to
particular classes in Shakespeare's day.  Nouns were often used
as verbs.  In Act I, Scene i, the King of France uses monsters
in a context where modern usage would require "makes it appear
monstrous."

Sure her offense

Must be of such unnatural degree

That monsters it....

(lines 217-19)

Adjectives could be used as adverbs.  In Act I, Scene iv, line
230 Lear says:  "I should be false persuaded" whereas the modern
equivalent would require falsely.  They could also be used as
verbs, as in Act II, Scene ii, line 118, where worthy becomes a
verb meaning "win honor for" in:  "That worthied him."

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  CHANGES IN WORD MEANING

The meanings of words undergo changes, a process that can be
illustrated by the fact that chip extended its meaning from a
small piece of wood to a small piece of silicon.  Many of the
words in Shakespeare still exist today but their meanings have
changed.  The change may be small, as in the case of
comfortable, which meant "comforting, ready to give comfort," as
in:  "I have another daughter, / Who, I am sure, is kind and
comfortable." (I, iv, 304-5) Or the change in meaning is more
fundamental, as when character meant "handwriting" (I, i, 260),
curious meant "elaborate" (I, iii, 32), fond meant "foolish" (I,
iv, 299), presently meant "immediately" (I, ii, 98), prevented
meant "came before, forestalled" (I, i, 44), and teem meant
"have children":  "If she must teem, / Create her child of
spleen...." (I, iv, 279-80).

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  VOCABULARY LOSS

Words not only change their meanings, but are frequently
discarded from the language.  In the past, leman meant
"sweetheart" and sooth meant "truth." The following words used
in King Lear are no longer current in English, but their
meanings can usually be gauged from the contexts in which they
occur:

BRAZED (I, i, 10):  hardened

KNAVE (I, i, 20):  fellow

CHAMPAINS (I, i, 68):  grassy plains

SECTARY ASTRONOMICAL (I, ii, 147):  student of, believer in
astrology

CLOTPOLL (I, iv, 46):  blockhead

EPICURISM (I, iv, 241):  gluttony

KIBES (I, v, 9):  chilblains

GASTED (II, i, 54):  frightened

BEWRAY (II, i, 106):  discover, reveal

FINICAL (II, ii, 17):  fastidiousness

CULLIONLY (II, ii, 31):  rascally

FRONT (II, ii, 105):  forehead

MEINY (II, iv, 34):  servants

FETCHES (II, iv, 86):  tricks

BEMADDING (III, i, 38):  maddening

CAITIFF (III, ii, 55):  wretch

OUT-PARAMOURED (III, iv, 89):  had more mistresses than

CORKY (III, vii, 29):  withered

SOT (IV, ii, 8):  fool

SIMPLES (IV, iv, 14):  medicinal herbs

WHELKED (IV, vi, 71):  twisted

FITCHEW (IV, vi, 121):  polecat, prostitute

LIST (V, iii, 62):  wish

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  VERBS

Shakespearean verb forms differed from modern usage in three
main ways:

1.  Questions and negatives could be formed without using do/did
as when Edmund asks:

Why brand they us

With base?

(I, ii, 9-10)

whereas today we would say:  "Why do they brand us as base, low
born?" Another example occurs when Gloucester states:  "I know
not"; modern usage demands:  "I do not know." Review the lists
that follow.  Shakespeare had the option of forms a and b,
whereas contemporary usage permits only form a.

a b

How do you look?  How look you?

How did he look?  How looked he?

You do not look well.  You look not well.

You did not look well.  You looked not well.

You did not look well.  You looked not well.

2.  A number of past participles and past tense verb forms are
used that would be ungrammatical today.  Among these are
strucken for "struck":  "I'll not be strucken, my Lord" (I, iv,
83); writ for "written":  "...I have writ my sister" (I, iv,
338), forbid for "forbidden":  "This courtesy forbid thee shall
the Duke / Instantly know...." (III, iii, 21); holp for
"helped":  "...he holp the heavens to rain." (III, vii, 60); and
spoke for "spoken":  "Ere you had spoke so far." (V, iii, 64).

3.  Archaic verb forms sometimes occur with thou and
he/she/it.

Follow me; thou shalt serve me.

(I, iv, 40)

Thou wast a pretty fellow when thou hadst no

need to care.

(I, iv, 188)

What he hath uttered.

(I, iv, 330)

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  PRONOUNS

Shakespeare and his contemporaries had one extra pronoun, thou,
which could be used in addressing a person who was one's equal
or social inferior.  You was obligatory if more than one person
was addressed:  "Tell me, my daughters / ...Which of you..." (I,
i, 47ff).  But you could also be used to indicate respect, as
when Goneril told her father:  "Sir, I love you more than words
can wield the matter..." (I, i, 54).

Frequently, a person in power used thou to a subordinate but was
addressed you in return, as when Edmund and Curan speak.

Edmund:  Save thee, Curan.

Curan:  And you, sir.  I have been with your father.

(II, i, 1ff)

But if thou was used inappropriately, it might be offensive.
The Fool uses thou when speaking to Lear to underline the fact
that Lear has given away his power along with his lands.

O nuncle, court holy water in a dry house is better than this

rain-water out o'door.  Good nuncle, in; ask thy daughters'

blessing:  here's a night pities neither wise men nor fools.

(III, ii, 10ff)

One further pronominal reference warrants a comment.  Lear uses
the royal plural we when he has or thinks he has power.

Right noble Burgundy,

When she was dear to us, we did hold her so;

(I, i, 194ff)

But he changes to I as he begins to appreciate his weakness:

Howl, howl, howl, howl!--O, you are men of stones:

Had I your tongues and eyes, I'd use them so

That heaven's vault should crack.

(V, iii, 256ff)

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions were less standardized in Elizabethan English than
they are today, and so we find several uses in King Lear that
would have to be modified in contemporary speech.  Among these
are on for "by," as in:  "...as if we were villains on
necessity..." (I, ii, 118); with for "by" in:  "He is attended
with a desperate train..." (II, iv, 303); of for "by" in:
"Unwhipped of justice..." (III, ii, 53); and in for "into" in:

There is a cliff whose high and bending head

Looks fearfully in the confined deep.

(IV, i, 73)

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  MULTIPLE NEGATION

Contemporary English requires only one negative per statement
and regards such utterances as "I haven't none" as nonstandard.
Shakespeare often used two or more negatives for emphasis:

Gloucester:  He cannot be such a monster.

Edmund:  Nor is not, sure.

(I, ii, 91ff)

And Lear says:  "No eyes in your head, nor no money in your
purse?" (IV, vi, 142ff)

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  FORM AND STRUCTURE

Elizabethan plays were written to be performed in circumstances
peculiar to their time.  A wooden platform thrust out into the
audience could serve as a stage.  Although even the poorest
performing troupe indulged in the most elaborate costumes they
could afford, there was no scenery and no special lighting.

A private performance might be held indoors, but most were
outside.  Theaters of the time were modeled after inn courtyards
with tiered galleries running around the perimeter.  The
cheapest admission was for the ground area where there were no
seats, so the audience stood or roamed about.

Actors--there were no actresses; men performed all the
roles--entered from the back of the stage area left and right,
and exited the same way.  Sometimes there was a recessed area in
the back across which a curtain might be drawn when
appropriate.

There was no signal--no curtain coming down, no lowering of the
lights--to indicate a change of scene or act.  Action at a
particular place ended when all the characters involved left the
stage.  The best available records or scripts of Shakespeare's
plays therefore don't contain the act and scene divisions we
commonly use today.  King Lear was written to be performed under
these circumstances.  These conditions dictated its form and
structure, which should actually be viewed as one uninterrupted
piece.

One way Shakespeare maintains pace and interest is to alternate
scenes between the main plot and the subplot.  As the story line
unfolds, he interweaves other scenes--Albany's castle,
Cordelia's tent--but the focus shifts back and forth between
Lear's story and Gloucester's.

Shakespeare also balances these changing scenes with a range of
dynamics.  The howling intensity of the storm scenes, for
example, is interrupted before the high pitch loses its effect.
Each time we return to Lear and the thunder and lightning, we
expect a little more; we are wound up and ready rather than
exhausted by the tumult.

The parallel and contrasting aspects of the two plots also
create an undercurrent of interest.  They combine to give the
play stimulus as well as dramatic texture.

Within the limitations of what we consider "primitive"
theatrical technology, Shakespeare applied his special skills in
King Lear to produce an experience of profound theatrical
tragedy, a riveting drama.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT I, SCENE I

Just mention the words King Lear and an image springs to
mind--the famous division of the kingdom among his daughters.
It's one of the most memorable scenes in all of Shakespeare's
works.  It's also one of the longest opening scenes, loaded with
important details that set up all the following events.

The play begins in a sort of "no-man's-land," but it soon
becomes King Lear's court, when he enters and quickly
establishes himself as the reigning monarch.

This opening scene introduces all the major characters of the
main plot and even gives a quick preview of the subplot.  There
is nothing wishy-washy about these characters.  What they say
and what they do reveal a great deal about them, at least enough
to start your impressions building.

NOTE:  On stage, the characters seem to fall into vivid
groupings.  Throughout the play there will be many times when
sides are drawn; it will be interesting to see which side has
the greater weight.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-6

The play begins with a casual conversation between two members
of the court, the Earl of Kent and the Earl of Gloucester.  They
observe that the king has treated his two sons-in-law, Albany
and Cornwall, inconsistently.  Remember, nothing said by any
character is ever a "throwaway." Even these first few lines have
some bearing on what will occur later.  Right at the start, they
begin to paint a picture of an unpredictable monarch.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 7-33

With no more said about that, they turn to a third
character--Edmund, the Earl of Gloucester's bastard son.  Listen
to the way his father speaks about his origin, right in front of
him.  Put yourself in Edmund's position and think how you would
feel if your father spoke that way about your
less-than-respectable birth.

Gloucester is good-natured, but oblivious to a son's feelings.
Look at the rude contrast he makes when he says:

here was good sport at his making, and the

whoreson must be acknowledged.  Do you know this

noble gentleman, Edmund?

(lines 21-24)

NOTE:  The actor playing Edmund wouldn't have to make a spoken
comment about his feelings on this subject.  He would have to
have a physical response that the audience could see.  This
early in the play, a brief moment like this should serve notice
for us to watch carefully for reactions.  Sometimes it will be
easy to tell, such as a spoken "aside." Sometimes it will be
silence.  Sometimes it will be a violent physical response.
They offer clues to what is happening inside the character's
mind.

This introductory dialogue ends with Edmund, the "whoreson," and
Kent, the "noble gentleman," making polite acquaintance.  The
sound of an offstage trumpet suddenly announces the arrival of
the royal party.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 34-120

The whole tone of the play now changes.  We have been listening
to characters speak in prose, loose and informal.  Now verse
takes over as the king enters in all his majesty, followed in
precise order of rank by his court.

NOTE:  THE NATURAL ORDER This strict placement--the positioning
of king at the head, dukes and duchesses next, earls, then other
nobles, and so on down the line--was important in Elizabethan
England.  This was the way things were supposed to be.  It
confirmed that all was well.  It was "natural," the way nature
intended things to be.  An upset of this would be considered
"monstrous," and we will soon see what happens when that
occurs.

The first breach comes when Lear announces that he intends to
retire and will divide his kingdom equally among his three
daughters--Goneril, Regan, and Cordelia.  Making this
announcement, he's firm and authoritative.  Nothing suggests
weakness or senility.  Only his white hair reminds us that he
is, after all, an aged man and king.

Before allotting their particular territories, Lear asks each
daughter to make a profession of her love and devotion to him.
Then he will decide who gets a larger and more advantageous
share.  Talk about sibling rivalry!

Is this capricious?  Or has everything been already decided?  Is
Lear telling just a little fib?  Maybe, but Shakespearean "fibs"
have a way of growing and taking on a much bigger importance.

Besides playing with his daughters' affections, he's indulging
himself, too, by putting on a show of his power.  It's all a
game, he seems to say.

Goneril and Regan know the rules.  They can tell fibs, too.
Their polished speeches certainly don't sound very sincere.  How
much truth is there in their vast professions of love and
devotion?  As they lay it on, one thicker than the next, Lear's
youngest daughter, Cordelia, warns us in asides that there is
trouble ahead.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 69-76

Now it's Cordelia's turn, and the warning bears fruit.  What can
she say to gain a larger share than her sisters?

Lear:  Speak

Cor:  Nothing, my lord.

Lear:  Nothing?

Cor:  Nothing.

Lear:  Nothing will come of nothing.  Speak again.

(lines 87-91)

Lear has been judging his daughters on quantity, not quality.
His whole idea of value appears to be bound up in this idea of
"How much do you love me?" Cordelia's blunt inability to offer
something, anything, is an affront to him.  Father and daughter
speak in short, staccato dialogue, underscoring the tense
emotion of the confrontation.

But what really is Cordelia's problem?  She could be completely
honest when she says that she simply speaks the truth and
performs her duty.  Some might feel this is a stubborn streak
coming out.  Others might feel she's being a little feisty.
Maybe she's gambling, taking a chance that her perverse honesty
will trick Lear into giving her a larger portion.  We haven't
seen enough of Cordelia to form an impression of absolute
goodness personified.

Lear, meanwhile, is not at all satisfied with her answer.  A
dramatic moment is building.  Lear stalls.  Has he really heard
such an "unnatural" reply?

Lear:  So young, and so untender?

Cor:  So young, my lord, and true.

(lines 107-8)

A standoff.  Neither side will compromise.  It is all or
nothing.  That is unacceptable to Lear.  Listen to his
pronouncement of judgment.  Rage and violence seem to pour forth
way out of proportion as he exercises his absolute rights as a
father and a king.

He calls on the gods above to witness his withdrawal of
Cordelia's share.  And then he goes further:  he disowns her, he
banishes her from his sight.

NOTE:  The scales of justice have now tipped.  This is our first
demonstration of judgment, of crime and punishment.  It will
recur in many different forms as the play unfolds.

There's still a chance for reconsideration, but time is running
on.  And both sides are stubborn.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 121-187

To provide a case for the defendant, Kent, the loyal attendant,
steps forward.  Drawing on his long and faithful service to
Lear, he speaks thoughts that may well run through the
audience's mind.  He begs Lear to retract the sentence.

No, the king has spoken.  Authority must be preserved even
though he is giving it away in almost the next breath.

Only we shall retain

The name, and all th' addition to a king.  The sway,

Revenue, execution of the rest,

Beloved sons, be yours; which to confirm,

This coronet part between you.

(lines 135-39)

For himself, Lear will keep a retinue of one hundred knights who
will accompany him on monthly visits to Goneril and Regan in
turn.  But all the rest he thrusts away with the parting gesture
of the coronet, the symbol of rule.

NOTE:  If there is any question of an inversion of the natural
order, that settles it.  He would no longer be king, on top, nor
father, on top.  It must lead to problems of real magnitude.  It
must lead to some form of "chaos."

Meanwhile, Kent persists.  Again citing his past service as his
support, he makes the first reference to Lear's madness in
executing such a rash judgment.  Moreover, he questions Lear's
vision, the ability to see his own folly.  But Lear rejects his
plea.

Out of my sight!

(line 157)

In a last-ditch effort, Kent begs:

See better, Lear, and let me still remain

The true blank of thine eye.

(lines 158-59)

Lear will have none of this.  Again, judgment and sentence are
swift:  Kent, too, is banished.  The king is still in command.

In his parting words, Kent asks the gods to provide shelter for
Cordelia, who has been, from his viewpoint, just in her
behavior.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 188-266

Gloucester, who left the stage with Edmund right after the royal
party arrived, now brings in Cordelia's suitors, the Duke of
Burgundy and the King of France.  When he is offered Cordelia's
hand without a dowry, Burgundy rejects it flatly.  He's not
interested in the maid without the money, so to speak.

Did Cordelia suspect this?  Is this why she deliberately
alienated Lear, so that she wouldn't be forced to marry the
blunt Burgundy?

When the King of France is given the same offer, he questions
the sudden change in Lear's affections.  What could be the
reason?

Sure her offense

Must be of such unnatural degree

That monsters it...

(lines 217-19)

Is Cordelia afraid that he will believe her guilty of some
violent crime, and that she will lose him?  Is there a
suggestion of preference when she interjects a plea that Lear
confirm her only sin to be a lack of "that glib and oily art /
To speak and purpose not...." (lines 224-25)?  She reminds Lear
and all those on stage, as well as in the audience, that her
disfavor stems from no criminal act.

France is not easily dissuaded.  He sees the paradox of
Cordelia's "richness" shining through her newly poverished
situation.  He loves her for her virtues, not her dowry.  He
accepts her despite her banishment.

What a contrast to Lear's quick judgment.  Which of the two
kings on stage, which of the two sides, do you think now has the
audience's sympathy?

With nothing further to say, with no further consideration, no
further reason applied, Lear turns his eyes away from his former
favorite child and leaves the stage, followed in procession by
his entourage.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 267-283

Goneril and Regan have lingered behind.  With her new protector
at her side, Cordelia bids farewell to them.  She states clearly
that she knows what they are really like, but asks them to
transcend their faults and take care of their father after she
has gone.  In terse replies that could have come straight out of
any version of Cinderella, they tell her to mind her own
business, to take care of her own prince, who has accepted her
despite her poor fortune.

NOTE:  The image of fortune--sometimes Fortune, and sometimes
fortune's wheel--will appear throughout the play.  To the
Elizabethan audience it always suggested change:  what is on top
now will inevitably fall to the bottom later--and vice versa.
Fortune and her wheel are never static.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 284-306

After Cordelia and France have left, the tone changes again.
Verse, poetry, and rhetoric are left behind as the two sisters
speak plainly to one another.  Looking back at Lear's rash and
hasty behavior, they're obviously concerned.  Who wouldn't be?
They attribute his banishment of Cordelia and Kent to the
weakness of old age, which they claim is not new in him.
There's strength in unity, and they agree to consult and take
joint action when the situation warrants.

As the stage clears, you have to start making up your own mind
about these outspoken characters.  Is Lear the intolerable
tyrant he appears to be?  Is Cordelia as sweet and good as she
seems?  And what of the two older sisters?  What have they done
but confirm a parent's image of his own goodness?  Everyone has
heard a mother or father, if not their own, ask a child, "How
much do you love me?" But at Lear's obvious age, and in his
position, the question comes a little late.  And dangerously.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT I, SCENE II

NOTE:  No curtain fell, no lights were lowered, but the
Elizabethan audience knew the scene had changed when the stage
cleared and a character or group entered.  Perhaps a slight
change of costume or a portable prop would help define the new
place or circumstances.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-22

Since Edmund had left the stage early in the previous scene, he
had an opportunity to make some slight change in his attire to
suggest that he was now "at home" in Gloucester's castle as he
enters the stage alone.

Within moments he has revealed that he was not a dispassionate
bystander to his father's naive insults.  He calls on nature,
whom he swears to serve.  But what nature does he mean?
Certainly not the nature of law and order.  No, for Edmund, who
is himself unnatural by birth, his nature is the law of might,
of wit and cunning--the law of the jungle.

His illegitimacy is indeed a sore point as is his status as
younger son.  But why should he be subject to that order which
would deprive him of his inheritance?  Why should his brother,
by the mere accident of his preceding birth, get it all?  By
design, Edmund wishes to overturn the other, the truly natural
order, and through his cleverness take all.  He cheerfully and
boldly calls on his gods to witness his resolution and support
him in his endeavors.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 23-114

Gloucester walks in and Edmund immediately resumes the pose of
the sweet and modest young man we saw in the first scene.
Pretending rather obviously to hide a letter in his hand, he
stimulates his father's curiosity.  When asked what he is
reading, Edmund replies:  "Nothing, my lord" (line 31).

Where have we heard that before?  But when another parent
received that same reply, it stayed there, rooted.  to its
"nothingness." Here, it leads to "something." This father, at
least, tries to demonstrate that he has some vision.

Let's see.  Come, if it be nothing, I shall not need

spectacles.

(lines 34-35)

Let's see, let's see!

(line 42)

NOTE:  The recurring theme of vision and blindness grows heavier
and heavier at this early stage.  Remember, the Elizabethans
considered the eyes the entrance to the mind, the intelligence
and reason.  If a person had vision, he could behave reasonably.
Without it, passion ruled and folly usually followed.

But while Gloucester's intentions are proper and true, the
object is false.  Edmund hands him a forged letter from his
brother Edgar, which starts out with a condemnation of the
accepted order, the tradition that makes a young man wait for
the death of an old parent to come into his inheritance.  It
goes on to scorn this policy and suggests that the two brothers
take action to rectify the situation and thus share their
father's property while they are young.

Gloucester, good-natured, affable soul that he is, questions the
letter's authenticity.  Again and again he asks questions,
delaying a response as long as possible.  When Edmund
"reluctantly" swears that the handwriting is Edgar's, that he
has even heard his brother make some suggestions that sons
should replace fathers at a certain age, only then does
Gloucester cry out that Edgar is a villain.

How easily is Gloucester gulled?  The simple ruse of a forged
letter is not much by intellectual standards, but dramatically
it was a pretty well-established convention and the audience
would not have been too harsh on him.  Still, it represents a
turning point in this subplot parallel to the main plot.

But rather than attribute it immediately to pure villainy on his
son's part, Gloucester recalls that there have been outside
influences at work.  The signs have been the strange aberrations
of "nature," which are omens of what has now happened.

This villain of mine comes under the prediction,

there's son against father; the King falls from bias

of nature; there's father against child.

(lines 107-9)

Gloucester does not pronounce sentence.  He reserves final
judgment as Edmund is ordered to provide further evidence.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 115-29

Alone again, Edmund sneers at the old man's references to the
celestial origins of earthly problems.  So much for astrology.
But can you dismiss it so easily?  After all, look who is
turning up his nose at the influence of "other powers."

Nevertheless, under any circumstances, Edmund makes the claim
that will echo throughout literature and the performing arts for
ages:  I am what I am.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 130-77

Edmund is in a lighthearted mood as Edgar enters, setting the
plot against the unsuspecting older brother into motion.  He
sighs "like Tom o' Bedlam" (line 132) and continues to mock his
absent father.

The double-dealing scoundrel soon convinces Edgar that he has
aroused Gloucester's violent displeasure and has reason to fear
his father's wrath.  The trusting Edgar suspects nothing; he
accepts Edmund's lies ever so easily.  Edgar sends him to his
chambers to await further news of the case against him and warns
him not to go about unarmed.

With "A credulous father, and a brother noble" (line 172),
Edmund is riding high on Fortune's wheel.  He repeats his vow to
gain by wit what he cannot have by birth.

Does it seem too simple?  Does the execution of Edmund's
villainy happen too easily?  But haven't we all been "suckered"
into some practical joke through something we saw as obvious
only afterward?

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT I, SCENE III

The major characters have now all made their appearance and
you've had a chance to form an opinion of each.  The principal
conflicts that set off the action of the main plot and the
subplot have been introduced, too.  It's time to enlarge upon
our greater interest--the story of Lear and his daughters--and
move the action forward.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-26

The scene shifts to a new grouping on the stage, and within a
matter of moments we know that we are in the Duke of Albany's
castle, where his wife Goneril is speaking to her steward.

NOTE:  The fawning servant was a stock character in Elizabethan
drama, just as we have stock characters today--the "best
friend," the butler, and so on.  The audience would expect
Goneril's steward to be a groveling lackey, but Shakespeare
makes special use of him.

We see him now complaining that he was struck for merely
scolding the king's jester, the Fool.  Goneril seizes on this to
generalize on the abuse she and her household have suffered from
Lear's knights and her father's rude behavior.  She will
retaliate by frosty behavior of her own and she encourages the
steward, Oswald, to do likewise.  For starters, Goneril will not
be there when the king returns from hunting.  Obviously, he is
hale and healthy enough to enjoy that royal pastime.  Goneril
leaves to write to Regan, encouraging her to do likewise when
Lear goes to her for his monthly visit.

People are forever making judgments in King Lear, usually hasty
judgments at that.  Goneril takes the word of a servant without
hearing the other side.  Is it because this suits her frame of
mind?  But what if the report is accurate?  Can she be blamed
for becoming angry at Lear's and his knights' raucous, abusive
behavior?  So we really don't know yet whether she is at fault
for making a snap judgment that Lear's entourage is behaving
badly.  It's too soon to say who is the victim and who is the
villain.

One slight clue is given, however.  In the first scene Lear
initiated the action, he set the wheels in motion.  As he is
spoken of in this scene, and as we shall see hereafter, he now
responds to the actions of others.  And his reactions, as we
have seen, are usually passionate, to say the least.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT I, SCENE IV

Appearance and reality are not only thematic undertones; they
actually surface purposefully in King Lear.  We've already seen
the appearance of geriatric humility and the reality of
autocratic wrath, the two-faced behavior of the scoundrel
Edmund, the false letter.  Now we see actual disguise as Kent
enters and announces that he has altered his appearance and
taken on the trappings of a humble peasant in order to get close
to Lear, to continue to serve his master.

Clothing obviously defines the wearer, and no aspect, from a
single thread to a fully naked body, should be ignored.  Is that
any different from today?  Don't we still judge people by what
they wear?

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 7-40

For the second time in the play, Lear makes an entrance.  This
time he is in his "retirement" and is obviously enjoying it as
much as any golden-ager who might have just returned from the
golf course.  As he meets up with Kent, he interrogates him as
an executive might interview a job applicant.  Kent comes up
with the right answers, citing Lear's look of "authority" as the
reason he wishes to serve him, and is accepted on a trial basis.
No snap judgments here.  Lear is a model of rational behavior if
a little given to the enjoyment of flattery.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 41-89

Still the spoiled autocrat, Lear claps his hands and demands his
dinner and his Fool.  And where is his daughter, who should be
there to greet him?  Oswald's brief dash across the stage
provides no answers.  Furthermore, a knight comes back with the
information that not only is Goneril not well enough to do her
duty, but he had received a curt reply from Oswald.  His report
of rudeness and poor treatment by the household staff prompts
Lear to recall that he had observed similar behavior of late--"a
most faint neglect" (line 65).  Notice how mild this judgment
is.  Still, he is irritable because his fool is nowhere to be
seen.  This absence is attributed by the knight to the greater
absence of another--Cordelia.

Since my young lady's going into France, sir, the

Fool hath much pined away.

(lines 70-71)

Cordelia's image is kept before us through obvious references
such as this, and even slighter, brief mentions.  In absence,
the picture of her and her goodness grows.

But first, Oswald's rudeness is dealt with.  For his insolence,
Lear goes to slap him and Kent trips him, earning his master's
thanks and a tip as the Fool makes his entrance.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 90-190

With wit, verve, and dash the Fool interrupts the mounting
tension while making his own points and actually adding fuel to
the fire.

Haven't you thought it pretty foolish of Lear, who is obviously
physically capable of executing his duties as king, to dispose
of his kingdom--his job, his authority, his possessions--so
unwisely?  Well, here is the Fool to put your point of view
across.  Were it not for his special position, he couldn't get
away with the barbs he levels at Lear.  In short order, he tells
the monarch that he became a fool himself when he gave away his
crown.  Lear himself reversed the natural order when he dropped
his pants and handed his daughters the rod to beat him with.  In
fact, to certify that he has become a fool, the lowest level of
the natural order, Lear gave away his title and stripped himself
symbolically naked.

Why does Lear tolerate these cutting reproaches?  Why should he,
the ruler, put up with the Fool, the servant?  Has the reference
to the Fool's beloved mistress in France triggered a sense of
repentance for his injustice in banishing her for a slight
offense?  Or has the mixture of nonsense spread a cover over the
cutting edge of these barbs?

Harping on the substantive, the quantitative, the Fool asks
Lear, "Can you make no use of nothing, Nuncle?" (lines 123-24),
and Lear replies that "Nothing can be made out of nothing." No,
Lear has not learned that lesson.

The Fool is threatened with a whipping as Goneril enters.  But
the Fool has a final word to say about "something" and
"nothing":  "I am a fool," he tells Lear, "thou art nothing"
(lines 184-185) as he turns his attention and his taunts to
Goneril.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 191-280

She accuses Lear's knights of insolence and complain that he
does nothing about it when she informs him of their abuse of her
hospitality.

What is Lear's reaction?  He mocks her with sarcasm.  He poses
rhetorical questions.  Who is this person to whom she would
speak so?  He plays the fool, a fool so blind that when he asks
again if anyone can tell him who he is, the Fool replies,
"Lear's shadow" (line 221).

But Goneril will not put up with this.  She tells him straight
out to stop his pranks.  "As you are old and reverend, should be
wise" (line 230).  She tells him that his knights treat her home
as though it were a tavern or a brothel.

Does Lear pay attention to what she is saying?  Hardly.  Does he
consider that her complaints may have some basis in fact?  Not
for a minute.  Instead he uses high-flown rhetoric to shout her
down, barely noticing Albany's arrival.  He curses her in no
uncertain terms:  "Degenerate bastard," "detested kite." The
invectives pour forth from his lips with the same fury he
unleashed against Cordelia earlier.

Albany's attempts as peacemaker fail and Lear summons up his
final curse.  He now calls on nature, his goddess of righteous
indignation, to take his part and make Goneril sterile so that
she will never know the honor of a child.  If she does bear, let
the child turn against her so that she may know:

How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is

To have a thankless child.

(lines 279-80)

The question must be asked--Does Goneril deserve such a curse,
the concentrated force of such hideous wishes?

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 281-301

Albany is bewildered by the scene he has witnessed, but Goneril
remains calm.  She can handle it.  Lear returns with a
mysterious reference to half his retinue, which we later
discover Goneril has given orders to leave within two weeks.

His anger is almost uncontrollable, but he will contain himself.
Venting his final curses on her, he vows to put out his own eyes
if ever they weep as a result of Goneril's treatment.  He tells
her that he has another, kinder daughter, Regan, who will surely
avenge him savagely when she hears what has happened.
Furthermore, she will discover that he has not abandoned all the
prerogatives of the monarchy.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 302-39

Albany tries to insert a voice of reason, but Goneril has been
too incited by Lear's curses.  It's dangerous, she claims, to
let him keep a hundred knights about him so that he may arm them
against any imagined enemy.  She summons Oswald and sends him to
Regan with her side of the story, telling him to embellish it as
much as he needs to produce the right effect.  As for Albany,
well, she can only overlook his mild manner and ignore his
warnings.

Any doubts about Goneril's ability to take a firm stand are
probably gone by now.  Still, what has she really done?  We have
not seen the cause of their conflict, but have only the reports
to consider, as well as their responses.  The case for either
side is still open.

We are beginning to have some feeling, some reaction to Albany.
It should be interesting to see how the other son-in-law comes
across compared to this one, who has not lined up that closely
on his wife's side.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT I, SCENE V

Lear returns to the stage, still dressed as before, still very
much the picture of a king, but without fanfare, with no royal
trappings, with only Kent and the Fool at his side.  He
immediately sends Kent off with a letter to Regan.  He, however,
in striking contrast to the instructions Goneril gave to her
messenger, tells Kent to stick strictly to the facts in the
letter.

When Kent has departed, Lear is left alone with the Fool, who
immediately tries to amuse Lear, but the turmoil is growing
inside the old man.  He is obviously not paying attention and
his thoughts drift.  When he comes out with comments such as "I
did her wrong" (line 21), is he thinking of Goneril or
Cordelia?

Prompted by the Fool's admonition that he had grown old before
he had acquired wisdom, Lear cracks a little under the strain of
holding his wits together and implores heaven not to let him be
mad.  Already he suspects and probably knows that this would be
the worst fate of all.

This brief scene probably isn't enough to turn around your
attitude if you feel that he has behaved badly up till now and
really doesn't deserve much sympathy.  But as Lear's defenses
begin to weaken, you may start to react more favorably toward
him after seeing this brief display of his humanity.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT II, SCENE I

If the last scene was essentially quiet and contemplative,
despite the Fool's attempts at merriment, this scene will be a
marked contrast.  We are back at Gloucester's castle where
Curan, a servant, is giving Edmund the latest news.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-19

Curan reports that Gloucester has just been informed that
Cornwall and Regan are en route and expected that evening.  He
passes along the gossip that there is already a growing unrest
between the Albany and Cornwall factions.  Edmund decides on the
spot that this unexpected arrival will distract the old Earl and
presents a great opportunity to cement his case against his
brother.  He calls the hidden Edgar to the stage.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 20-32

As Edgar appears, Edmund is all urgency and warnings.  The older
brother is told that Gloucester has posted guards and has them
searching for him.  Moreover, is it possible that Edgar has
spoken against Cornwall, who is heading for the castle right
now?  Or against Albany?

Claiming that Gloucester's arrival, which he has just heard,
signals doom for Edgar if he doesn't make a convincing
departure, Edmund prompts his brother to engage in a fake duel
with him and flee.  Edgar is convinced, does as he is told, and
hurries away.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 32-85

The sly Edmund then wounds himself and continues the fraud as
Gloucester enters with servants carrying torches.

Edmund is really into his act now as Gloucester asks him three
times where Edgar is.  Stalling so that Edgar can get beyond
reach and not contradict his story right away, he finally sends
off the searching party.  We can only guess that he pointed in
the wrong direction.

He then sets about convincing Gloucester of his brother's
villainy--shaping his own treacherous thoughts to fit his
brother's profile--claiming he was asked to join but was opposed
to Edgar's "unnatural purpose" (line 50).  His refusal was the
cause of the duel that just took place, he says.

Gloucester needs no further proof.  He will search far and wide,
but Edgar will be captured and punished.  He is so taken by
Edmund's fidelity and loyalty that he announces that this son
will be "legitimized" and thus become the heir.  Edmund's
conniving has served him well, more quickly than he undoubtedly
expected.  But before he has a chance to exult, Cornwall and
Regan make their entrance.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 86-129

NOTE:  With their attendants in tow, note the growing importance
the Duke and Duchess have taken on.  The very manner of their
entrance should give an idea of how grand they have become.

They dispense with the ceremony of formal greeting.  They have
received a report of Edgar's supposed villainy and ask for more
news.  Regan finds a contact point with the main story of Lear
and his growing problems when she asks:

What, did my father's godson seek your life?

He whom my father named, your Edgar?

(lines 91-92)

She suggests that he had been keeping bad company, carousing
with Lear's retinue, and Edmund quickly confirms this.  He is
remarkable in his ability to determine opportunities and take
advantage of them.

Regan herself is no stranger to opportunity.  She uses this
meeting to express her complaints against Lear and his knights
that reflect the news she has received from Goneril.  In fact,
this is one reason why she has left home.  If Lear arrives
there, he will find no welcome and no comfort.

As for Cornwall, why is he impressed with Edmund's "virtue"?  He
welcomes Edmund to his own company, commending his "Natures of
such deep trust..." (line 115).

Regan then seeks to enlist Gloucester to their cause.  She has
heard from both her father and her sister and claims that she
seeks his counsel in deciding a course of action for her
response.

Is she credible?  Hasn't she already announced that she has been
"well informed" by Goneril and has closed the doors of her
house?  Despite the sweet talk and dripping expression of old
friendship, can you see Regan's true colors peeking through?

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-39

Outside Gloucester's castle the two messengers meet.  During the
few moments they are alone on stage, we get a better and broader
picture of each.  Hear what they say and watch what they do.
Kent exhibits the courage, loyalty, and daring we've come to
expect, and he also shows a command of rhetoric all his own.
Oswald is just as true to type.  As he runs from Kent's attack,
you can probably picture the actor you would have playing this
cowardly, sniveling role.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 40-169

Oswald's cries bring the party from within the castle.  Edmund
draws his sword to stop Kent's onslaught, but it is Cornwall who
assumes charge of the situation.  As for Gloucester, he stands
mute and defers to Cornwall.

Kent is identified as Lear's messenger, but Cornwall persists in
trying to discover the cause of the quarrel with Oswald.  Kent's
replies produce nothing but a word picture of this
lower-than-low creature.  He defines Oswald as something made by
a tailor, nothing in himself.  Think of that:  take away his
clothes and what do you have?

What is Kent trying to do?  Perhaps he thinks he can discredit
Oswald's reliability as a messenger, knowing what Goneril surely
would have sent to her sister.

The attempt, at any rate, fails, and Cornwall makes a decision,
a judgment:  Kent is to be put in the stocks for his
transgression.  Despite protests that he is the king's messenger
and such a gesture would be disrespectful, the sentence will be
executed.

Regan's vindictive disposition is heard when she echoes and adds
to the sentence.  Even Gloucester's plea, as he finally speaks
up for mercy for the king's messenger, is put down by Cornwall,
who states that he'll take that responsibility.  Regan's concern
is what Goneril will do when she hears that her messenger was
abused.

When the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall, Edmund, and all
attendants have left, Gloucester is alone with the now "stock'd"
Kent, whom he does not, of course, recognize in disguise.  How
far they have come from the opening of the play when they were
also alone on the stage.

Gloucester shows compassion for this stranger who has been
harshly judged and treated, and he would go back and again ask
for leniency.  But Kent is stoic and claims he needs the rest!
What's more, he recognizes the turns of Fortune's wheel.

Kent uses his moment of tranquility to add to our knowledge of
what is taking place in the larger world.  He reveals a letter
from Cordelia that tells him that she is aware of the situation.
(See how the image of that good creature is kept in our minds by
such references.  We actually haven't laid eyes on her since the
very first scene.)

With a final sigh of resignation, Kent asks Fortune to smile on
him and turn her wheel once more.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT II, SCENE III

NOTE:  Obviously, Kent cannot walk offstage bound up in the
stocks.  But as he dozes, Shakespeare pulls our attention away
from him by leading it to another commanding presence entering
from an opposite side.

Edgar enters and, much like his brother before, confides in us,
reveals to us his inner thoughts.  Up until now he has been a
pretty weak character, so easily duped that when his brother
last deceived him, he could only mutter a few weak words, not
even questioning what he heard.

Now he shows that he is not unimaginative and unresourceful.
Having heard that he is being hunted, his picture sent about
much like a "Wanted" poster today, he will do the clever thing
and change his appearance, transform himself completely, at
least until the heat is off.

Right before our very eyes he begins to change as he describes
the lowly disguise he will assume.  If Kent has turned into a
peasant, Edgar goes one step further and turns into a vagrant
lunatic, equivalent to the meanest hobo or "bag lady" found on
the streets.  They are searching for someone who is "something,"
but he will be "poor Tom" the beggar.  He who was Edgar is now
"nothing" (line 21).

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT II, SCENE IV

As Edgar drifts away, outside the social order, on the very
bottom of the pile, he who should be on top enters.  Still
dressed in royal garments, Lear arrives outside Gloucester's
castle, accompanied by a member of his entourage and the Fool.

In his very first words, Lear lets us know that there has been
an abortive journey to Regan's castle.  He has traveled through
the night and must show the signs of such a strain.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-59

Seeing Kent in the stocks, he asks who has done this to his
messenger.  When told that it was Cornwall and Regan, he shows
the old fire, the old hasty judgment and rage, calling such a
deed "worse than murder" (line 22).

NOTE:  In a previous scene we heard Oswald tell his version of
the encounter.  Now we hear Kent's.  It's almost like reading
two different newspaper reports of something we've seen
ourselves.  Watch carefully and you will discover repeated
contrasts, not only between the main plot and the subplot, but
in details, incidents, and characters.

We expect a passionate response from this easily provoked king,
but now we hear reference to the inner part of his being that is
touched by such an outrage.  He will seek the source, and
exits.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 60-83

Lear's absence allows the Fool to sally with Kent, who wants to
know why Lear's entourage has been reduced.  But the Fool
answers in riddles, giving a vague warning when he talks about
the rain and the storm of what is to come.  He reinforces our
suspicion that it's not always easy to tell who is the wise man
and who is the fool.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 84-114

Lear returns with Gloucester, grumbling that he has had no
success producing Regan and Cornwall.  Gloucester's timid
responses may be tactful, but they are just the thing to incite
Lear's further rage.  And that's exactly what happens.  He spews
forth curse after curse, and then--what's this?--he pauses for a
moment and gives them the benefit of the doubt.  For the first
time we hear Lear consider an alternative.  Perhaps they are
ill, an acceptable excuse for not showing up when summoned.

But, wait.  The old choler triumphs, and he is back fuming that
he will not accept such a ruse.  He will break down their door
if they do not show up immediately.  And he sends Gloucester off
with that message.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 115-304

With just enough of a pause for Lear to share the anguish of his
heart, and the Fool to relieve the mounting tension with pointed
nonsense, Gloucester leads the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall onto
the stage, followed by their attendants.

NOTE:  As the stage begins to fill now, it is important to keep
in mind a picture of how the sides are being drawn and which has
the greater weight.  Remember, Lear entered this scene with one
attendant and the Fool.  When Kent is freed, he naturally goes
to Lear's side, too.  Watch the opposition build.

The greetings are formal and brief.  Lear gets right to the
heart of the matter and pours forth his tale of Goneril's
mistreatment.

But he gets little sympathy from Regan, whose polite words
barely conceal the frost underneath.  She takes the party line
established by Goneril and indicates that she has accepted the
reports of "riots" by his entourage.  Lear is old, she tells
him, and should defer to wiser minds.  She tells him to return
to Goneril and apologize.

He mocks the suggestion by kneeling and asking sarcastic
forgiveness of an imaginary daughter.

Regan virtually orders him to stop his nonsense and return to
her sister, but his anger is mounting.  He complains that the
older sister has cut his following in half, abused him verbally,
and behaved like a snake.  His litany of curses on Goneril is
interrupted by Regan.  He will, she claims, say the same of her
when he is being rash.

Lear denies that; he butters her up lavishly.  A trumpet is
heard offstage announcing an arrival.

Oswald's entrance reminds Lear that he has not received an
answer to his question of who put Kent into the stocks.  But
Goneril's entrance delays an answer.  She quickly aligns herself
with Regan despite Lear's obvious displeasure.

Finally, Cornwall admits that he pronounced the sentence on
Kent.  No time is given for a real reaction from Lear, but he
must guess which way the wind is blowing.  Regan pours it on by
suggesting again that he return to Goneril, but he will have
none of it.  In his fiery reply he gives us a preview of coming
events.

I abjure all roofs, and choose

To wage against the enmity o' th' air

(lines 203-4)

He will do anything but return to this wicked daughter who has
already reduced his retinue by half.  He bids Goneril an
ultimate farewell, reflecting that she is nevertheless his own
child, even though she has become corrupted.  But he can do
without her because he at least has Regan.

Does he?  She argues that she is not ready for him, that she
can't find provisions for his full entourage.  Besides, what
does he need with so many attendants?  Why, in fact, does he
need any, ask Regan and Goneril in turn.  The quantitative bias
is turned against him, but Lear has a broader view.  He is at
the lowest point of his fortunes as a monarch, defending himself
to his own daughters, and he can see things clearer.

What does anyone need anything for?  Why are they so richly
dressed?  he reminds them.  Clothing defines them.

NOTE:  Keep in mind this attitude toward attire.  Costumes on
stage could be very elaborate.  They could also serve as "armor"
against any form of opposition.  And, conversely, the lack of
garments meant exposure to any enemy or destructive force.

In a plea for sympathy, he points out his condition--"a poor old
man, / As full of grief as age" (lines 267-68).  Will the gods
allow him to sit quietly and tolerate their mistreatment?  No,
he will find a way to have his way.

The sound of the storm offstage punctuates the answer to his own
question.  Despite his grievances, he vows in the future not to
show his weakness.  But with a final cry as he exits, Lear
shares his fear of a mental breakdown from the anguish he has
experienced.

Having seen the ease with which he has mocked Goneril and played
the beggar of forgiveness in front of Regan, can you totally
believe Lear's appeals for sympathy here?  Is it perhaps
overindulgence in self-pity?  Or is it the real thing?

The stiff-lipped daughters show how determined they are after
Lear has left.  Gloucester tells them that a fierce storm is
brewing outside, but they don't care.  Let him stay out there
and learn his lesson.  He's brought it all on himself, they
agree, as they order Gloucester to leave Lear outside, and
Cornwall gives the order to bar the door.

Even if you grant that there is some truth in what they have
said, how much can you sympathize with Goneril and Regan when
you hear their version of the facts?  The lines that draw their
portraits grow heavier as their evil natures gradually emerge.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT III, SCENE I

On the other hand, Kent's character is firmly fixed and will not
vary.  (Note that he is useful in many ways to the playwright.
Again Shakespeare exploits his function as "news bulletin"
reporter to clear the stage and prepare for the passion of the
scene to come.) It is too soon to appreciate the change in Lear
as he contends "with the fretful elements" (line 4), but a
report of this behavior sets us up for what is to come.

The political situation is reviewed, too.  We learn that there
is underground activity between Cornwall and Albany, each of
whom would like to run the whole show.  But the unrest has
produced a response from France that shows that interest still
active.  Indeed, French forces are reported to have landed in
England and Kent would have them made aware of the king's
current situation.  He sends the king's courtier off to bear
that message and adds a few words of his own for Cordelia.  She
will recognize him by the ring he sends.

Again Cordelia is recalled and reinforced as "goodness" striving
against opposing forces.  She has been absent from the stage,
but have you forgotten what she represents?  Is there a need to
think any more about her pride?  Her stubbornness?  Just look at
how she is absolved in absentia.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT III, SCENE II

NOTE:  Here is the first great storm scene of King Lear.  To get
full value, to make its dramatic effect profound on audiences
then and now, it took more than the sound of thunder offstage.
It would take the powerful effects of speech and movement.  The
rhetoric thunder in Lear's words is undoubtedly greater and more
moving than the artificial, but the combination must have been
stunning.  Properly acted, in these scenes the storm and Lear
become united in force and fury.

As the storm rages, Lear enters with the Fool.  What a
difference from any of his previous entrances!  Gone are the
stately procession, the court attendants, the regal trappings.
Only the Fool, the loyal court jester, is with him to mitigate
the tremendous agony of Lear's burden.  Joining the voice of the
storm with his own voice of protest, Lear calls on the celestial
powers to bring down the full force of the tempest against his
two ungrateful daughters.  Let them be the messengers of his
revenge.

In another voice, calm yet impassioned, he asks the gods to
witness his woeful condition.

When Kent arrives on the scene, he joins the Fool in a plea to
bring Lear in to some kind of shelter.  But Lear is still full
of his inner turmoil and will not be moved.  He continues to
rant against the tyrannies of his enemies.  Lear acknowledges
himself as somewhat responsible, but he is "More sinned against
than sinning." (line 60).

Kent's entreaties finally make their point and Lear, recognizing
that he has been carried away by the storm and his own anger,
suddenly notices the cold and the rain.  Taking pity on the
Fool, who has suffered from the elements along with him, he
enters the hovel Kent has found.  The Fool shares with the
audience a paradoxical prophecy of the greater storm to come:

Then shall the realm of Albion

Come to great confusion.

(lines 91-92)

NOTE:  Albion (another name for England) will also suffer the
turn of Fortune's wheel and feel the trauma created by the
inversion, the power struggle, and all the chaos unleashed by
the "unnatural acts" we are witnessing.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT III, SCENE III

It's scoundrel time once again.  The Gloucester/Edmund/Edgar
subplot begins to accelerate.

As Gloucester and Edmund appear on stage, the father confesses
to his illegitimate son that he does not like the "unnatural"
behavior of Cornwall and Regan; an upsetting of order has
resulted from their assumption of authority in his house, with
the guests ruling the host.  Hypocritical Edmund is quick to
agree that it is indeed "savage and unnatural." But wasn't this
the very thing he expressed a desire to do in the forged
letter--if we assume that it represented his own wishes?

Gloucester makes the mistake of confiding that he has received a
letter that presumably comes from sympathizers with the French
invaders who are already mounting their forces somewhere in the
land.  The old earl plans to disobey Cornwall's orders and go to
the king with such relief and comforts as he can provide.
Gloucester asks Edmund to cover for him by saying that he is
unwell and has retired for the evening.  He'll take the risk
under penalty of death for the sake of the master he has served
faithfully.

Once Gloucester leaves, the treacherous Edmund reveals that he
will betray this confidence to advance his own cause.

In this short scene, two character studies are engraved a little
deeper as the tension builds.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT III, SCENE IV

The scene shifts back to the storm.  You may wonder why it
didn't just continue uninterrupted, since there doesn't seem to
be a time change.  Some modern productions attempt to run the
storm scenes all together and they generally run into the
problem Shakespeare avoided by separating them.

The intensity is so great and the passions are so tremendous
that it is impossible to rise higher, or even to sustain the
pitch.  It takes all the playwright's skill to combine prose and
poetry, song snatches, rhymes, even nonsense, to maintain the
texture of these scenes and create the dynamics.  Don't miss the
sound of the words as you pay attention to their meaning; you
are hearing an exquisite symphony of emotion and excitement,
filled with crescendos as well as peaceful interludes.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-27

At the doorway to shelter, Kent begs Lear to enter.  But the old
king gives a calm analysis of why he is not bothered by the wind
and the rain.  How can it compare with the turmoil within his
mind and body?  He knows that he has been mistreated by his
daughters, who have turned him out in such a night; he knows how
fierce the weather is.  He sends the Fool inside; he will follow
in a moment.  First he wishes to pray.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 28-36

In a supreme moment of introspection and exposure of his deepest
understanding, Lear reflects on the earthly condition of his
fellow suffering human beings.  The other "poor naked wretches"
(line 28) who have no shelter arouse a compassion we haven't
seen before in him, and it inspires--compels--our sympathy.  As
he reveals an ability to care for others under such devastating
circumstances as the storm and his own exile, we begin to care
for him.

Lear even shows an understanding of how clothing determines the
social order and shields us from a true vision of man's
condition.  When he says, "Take physic, pomp" (line 33), we know
that he is reminding himself of his own past errors.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 37-107

The breakdown that has been threatening now occurs when Edgar,
disguised as poor Tom o' Bedlam, comes out and opens an escape
hatch from Lear's world of sorrows to the safer world of
madness.

Edgar plays the part of lunatic wanderer to the hilt and quickly
becomes Lear's sounding board and counterfoil to repeated
complaints of his daughters' ingratitude.  Positioning the
madman as a learned philosopher, Lear thrusts at him with
questions the play itself is asking:

Is man no more than this?

(lines 97-98)

What is the cause of thunder?

(line 146)

We can see that Lear has now embarked on a voyage of discovery
through the darkness in which his mind is wandering.  In streaks
of light and insight, he indicates new awareness.  When he sees
Edgar's wretched rags, he begins to take off his own clothes to
identify with this creature of the lowest social order.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 108-175

Even Gloucester's arrival cannot stop the progress Lear is
making.  And Gloucester's own blindness, his failure to
recognize his own son--even granting that he is
disguised--underscores the contrast of Lear's growing vision.

NOTE:  Things are not what they seem.  The more Lear appears
mad, the more he is perceived so by Gloucester and Kent.  But
the more he is learning within his suffering heart and mind.

Gloucester, the prosaic, patient, well-meaning soul, rises a bit
in our estimation by his attempt to be of assistance.  But
there's irony in his acknowledgment of Lear's driven condition
provoked by his daughters, and his comparison of his own
betrayal by his legitimate son.  How ironic is his cry, "The
grief hath crazed my wits" (line 161), in view of Lear's madness
and sorrow.

As the storm rages outside, the group moves inward to shelter
and momentary relief.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT III, SCENE V

Here is another break from the compelling passion of Lear's
growing madness and the dark shadows surrounding him.  We are
given a close-up view of the utmost villainy at work.  It is not
enough for us to know that Edmund will betray his father; we get
to witness it in this "meanwhile, back at the castle"
interlude.

Having heard the news of Gloucester's "disloyalty," Cornwall
acknowledges that Edgar might have been justified in wishing to
have his father put away.  As Edmund sighs and beats his breast
at the pain he suffers in turning in his father, Cornwall gives
him the happy news that a reward is at hand.  As far as this
"worthy arch and patron" (Act II, Scene i, line 59) is
concerned, Edmund is now the Earl of Gloucester.  Just listen to
the hypocrisy that abounds in this scene as Edmund and Cornwall
glibly toss off references to "loyalty" and "trust" and "love."
If you didn't know better by now, wouldn't this sound like the
most sincere conversation you could imagine?  Since you have the
facts behind it in your mind, how powerful is its "villainy"
manifest?

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT III, SCENE VI

As Lear stumbles down the road to darkest despair and madness,
there are telltale moments of lucidity and passion.  Having
touched us with sublime humility and fiery anguish, we now
witness the debasement of the monarch--the highest court of
appeal at one time--as he indulges in a grotesque parody of the
court of law.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 6-83

Gloucester and Kent have managed to gather the three unbridled
spirits and have brought Lear, Edgar, and the Fool into a
shelter, perhaps a cottage.

NOTE:  Picture the three of them prancing about the stage.
Edgar is spouting gibberish to maintain his disguise as "poor
Tom"; the Fool is trying to entertain his master, to alleviate
the pain of his suffering with riddles; and Lear is mainly in
the darkness of his tortured mind, but emerges now and then to
give telling replies to the Fool's riddles.

With Gloucester gone to seek further comforts, Lear decides to
hold a "trial" to judge his daughters' evil behavior.  He
appoints the "mad" Edgar as judge, the Fool as a member of the
jury, and he will prosecute.  With a stool standing in for the
accused, he declares Goneril guilty of kicking "the poor King
her father" (lines 47-48).  Did we see this happen?  Or can we
accept it as an accurate metaphor for his treatment at her
hands?

Regan is similarly accused, but the trial breaks down as Lear's
mind turns to self-pity.  He sees light long enough to tell
those assembled that Regan's heart should be examined to see if
there is any "natural" cause for the evil it contains.

But the madness is growing in him even as he grows calmer.  For
a moment he thinks that Edgar is one of his hundred knights,
though strangely costumed.  Isn't this an ironic fulfillment of
Regan's earlier accusation?

At last he is persuaded to retire for the evening and goes to
lie down.  Perhaps thinking he is back in his own castle, he
gives orders for the curtains to be drawn and supper, the
evening meal, to be served in the morning.

To that the Fool replies:  "And I'll go to bed at noon" (line
83).  These are the Fool's last spoken words; after this scene
he disappears.  Why Shakespeare did this is one of the great
questions, a subject of much critical speculation.  You have
seen the Fool in action.  You have seen the function he served.
Now you must decide how much of a loss he really is.  Do you
believe he could continue to provide any comfort for his master
whose madness, if not his anger, has been relatively calm up to
this point?

NOTE:  It has been suggested that the Fool's line can be
interpreted to mean that he will die now, at the zenith of his
life.  Do you believe this?  If not, what other explanation can
you offer for this, his final statement?

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 90-113

The trusted Kent, who has witnessed all this, assures the
returned Gloucester that Lear's "wits are gone." But Gloucester
has even worse news to report.  He has overheard a plot to kill
the king.  They must clear out and take Lear to Dover, where he
will be safe.  (There, in the southeast of England, the French
forces have landed.) Kent bemoans the fact that the rest Lear
needed so desperately to help cure him of his madness is
obviously not at hand.

The faithful Gloucester, Kent, and the Fool literally carry Lear
away, much as he virtually departs from the mainstream of the
action now.  The wheels set in motion by his initial act and by
Gloucester's misplacement of trust are now spinning furiously
and will carry matters forward.

Edgar lingers for a moment to call the audience's attention to
the pathetic nature of the scene they have witnessed, and to
remind us that "Who alone suffers suffers most i' the mind"
(line 102).  It is a sad omen of what we are yet to see.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT III, SCENE VII

NOTE:  The widely discussed violence of today's television and
movies has nothing on the brutality of this scene, which is
performed live before the audience.  However, it is not
gratuitous.  It belongs, it is integral, and we are ready for
it.  Shakespeare needed an act of compelling intensity to
prepare us for the greater catastrophe that Lear will
experience:  this physical act of violence serves that purpose.
And what else could compare to the towering ferocity of the
storm, the tumult of Lear's madness, and the manic insanity of
the disguised Edgar?  Would a mild reproach, a slap on the
wrist, be enough?  Kent was put into the stocks for simply
drawing his sword on a servant; Gloucester's punishment must fit
his crime, and it must be witnessed.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-25

As soon as Cornwall has sent Goneril off to bring Albany up to
date on the French invasion, he orders a search for "the traitor
Gloucester" (line 3).

Like two harpies, the sisters call for punishment.  Regan
suggests hanging, but Goneril, who once told Lear that she loved
him "Dearer than eyesight" (Act I, Scene i, line 56), cries:
"Pluck out his eyes" (line 5).  In this case, it is his
sister-in-law's counsel that Cornwall will follow.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 27-107

But before such sentence can be executed, justice will be mocked
again.  Gloucester is brought in and a hurried inquisition is
held.  He must suffer the indignation and torture of his
accusers' abuse.  As Regan plucks the old man's beard, we hear
her echo a former accusation:  "So white, and such a traitor!"
(line 35).

Regan and Cornwall are determined to discover what they can
before punishing Gloucester.  They can hardly believe--or
perhaps don't want to believe--the news that the king has been
sent off to Dover.  Why would Gloucester point him in that
direction?  In an ironic and sad preview of his fate, he tells
them,

Because I would not see thy cruel nails

Pluck out his poor old eyes;...

(lines 56-57)

With that preparation, it is not surprising to see Cornwall
execute the punishment, to see him physically put out
Gloucester's eyes.  Still, the horror is there, and to
underscore it one servant tries to stop Cornwall.  He engages
the duke in a duel, but Regan rises to the challenge and runs a
sword through the servant's back.  Cornwall crawls toward the
completion of Gloucester's punishment and puts out his second
eye.

The blinded earl now begs for the comfort of his son Edmund and
receives another form of punishment when Regan tells him that it
was Edmund who betrayed him.

In his agony, Gloucester recognizes his former metaphoric
blindness, which led him to cast Edgar out into the cold.

In the ultimate revelation of her savage disposition, Regan
punctuates the cruelty we've just witnessed by ordering a
servant to throw the bleeding Gloucester out "and let him smell
/ His way to Dover" (lines 92-93).

When he is gone, Regan discovers that Cornwall has been injured
in his duel with the servant, and leads him offstage.

The extent of the wickedness is not lost on the observers on
stage or on those in the audience.  The remaining servants share
our sympathy and compassion for Gloucester.  They agree to give
him medicines to ease his physical suffering but, as they
indicate, only heaven can really help him now.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT IV, SCENE I

There is only brief relief from the horror just witnessed.  In
this scene Gloucester returns to the stage; his role
becomes--like Lear's--essentially passive from now on.  But at
the same time, the emotional appeals that Shakespeare will
direct through both these old men will also grow more
powerful.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-9

Edgar, still disguised, enters and reminds us that his lot in
life is the lowest.  He is, he says, at his very worst.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 10-79

Gloucester stumbles in, aided by an old family retainer.  When
the blind earl tries to dismiss his servant, he is reminded that
he cannot see his way.  What does Gloucester reply?

I have no way, and therefore want no eyes;

I stumbled when I saw:...

(lines 18-19)

Discovering his father in this condition and hearing his
pathetic revelation, his plea to find his lost son, Edgar is in
agony.  Now Edgar realizes that there is no such thing as
"worst." There is always more.

NOTE:  Why doesn't Edgar just own up to who he really is?  It
wouldn't serve the play's development, but how can such an
opportunity go by?  Watch what happens and see if you can detect
a reason to continue his disguise.

Gloucester recognizes the voice of the beggar he had met the
night before, and mentions that ironically he was reminded of
his son.  Just another trick of fate, he comments, as he makes
the most pessimistic observation of the play:

As flies to wanton boys, are we to th' gods,

They kill us for their sport.

(lines 36-37)

Is that the ultimate "message" of the play?  Is that the answer
to everything that has happened and will happen?  Or is man
himself the determining factor for both good and evil?  There is
no cut-and-dried answer, but there are, as always, clues.

NOTE:  The Wheel of Fortune has come around for Gloucester, much
as it did for Edgar moments ago.  It's natural for the old man
to bemoan his fate.  Recognition is important, but remember, the
wheel is never stationary.  It continues to move, and Gloucester
has other discoveries yet to make.

The nonrecognition scene continues:  it serves the drama for
Edgar to remain unknown to his father.  To make that acceptable,
Shakespeare contrives a purpose.  The old servant is let go and
Gloucester now comes to depend on the beggar.  Aware of his
wretched condition, the earl wishes to provide him with clothes,
to make him more "respectable" as relief from his suffering.  In
an obvious gesture of Christian charity Gloucester gives away
his purse.

He asks the beggar if he is familiar with the Dover coast and
the cliffs found there.

NOTE:  One of the best-known features of the English landscape,
this would strike a familiar note with the audience.  It would
also suggest what Gloucester has in mind.  Imagine a character
in a play today saying, "Take me to the Brooklyn Bridge." It
wouldn't be too difficult to figure out what he was planning.

Edgar answers affirmatively.  Gloucester asks to be led there
and brought to the edge where "...from that place / I shall no
leading need" (lines 77-78).  Why wait for the gods?  He will
create his own destiny.  Edgar takes his arm, and they depart.

This new twist of the subplot, leading it toward the main plot,
serves another purpose.  Have you noticed how Edgar has begun to
gain importance?  He has not yet initiated action, but his role
as participant--and as gradual hero--constantly grows from here
on.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT IV, SCENE II

A fresh complication of the main plot takes place, too, as new
intrigue begins.  The web being spun by the wicked daughters and
the equally evil Edmund is developing knots.  The pregnant
suggestion of a rift between the forces of Albany and Cornwall
is only one of the problems.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-28

The first breach occurs as Goneril arrives home with Edmund at
her side.  She hears from Oswald, the faithful, fawning steward,
that Albany has heard of the French landing in England, but it
has not aroused him.  Told of Gloucester's supposed treachery
and Edmund's supposed loyalty, he was even less pleased.

Recognizing a problem in the making, Goneril sends Edmund off to
rejoin Cornwall's forces as she professes her great passion for
this earl-presumptive, sealing it with a kiss.  Edmund hides
behind a chivalrous farewell that tells us nothing of his true
feelings for her.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 29-68

Albany enters and we quickly see how he feels about Goneril and
her recent actions.  He recognizes her and her sister as
"Tigers, not daughters," whose gross treatment of their father
will not go unpunished.  He, too, observes that the gods will
not allow such offenses to continue--otherwise, chaos would
result.

Goneril, not unlike Lear in his earlier rash state, lashes out
at him and calls him a coward.  He sees her as nothing but a
beast.

NOTE:  Remember where animals stood then in the "natural order."
Not only were they at the bottom, they had their own ranking:
at the very lowest are "monsters," the embodiment of evil.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 69-98

A messenger interrupts this verbal battle to inform them of the
death of the Duke of Cornwall from his recent wound.  At the
same time, Albany hears of Gloucester's blinding by his
brother-in-law and the servant's attempt to intercede.  In the
final result, Albany sees justice served by the vengeful gods;
Cornwall was punished swiftly for his heinous act.

Goneril is given a letter from her sister, who she realizes is
now a widow and possible contender for Edmund.  As she goes to
draft a suitable reply, Albany learns that Edmund had come to
the palace with Goneril and turned right around.  Moreover,
Edmund's betrayal of his father had led to the vile
punishment.

In a final impassioned statement, Albany vows revenge, to finish
himself what the gods have apparently only partially done.

The softer shades are disappearing from the palette as the evil
characters grow blacker and the good ones lighter.  Is there any
room for doubt about Goneril now?  And what about Albany?  From
here on we know what to expect of them.

Still we have to ask, why doesn't Albany join up with the forces
against Regan and Edmund and even Goneril?  Why doesn't he go
over to the "good guys"?  Could it be that he is reluctant to
become involved in a civil war?  Or does patriotism make him
feel he must defend the country against foreigners?  Albany is
in a difficult position.  It will be interesting to see how
Shakespeare deals with the problem.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT IV, SCENE III

It's time for another news bulletin, a report by Kent and an
anonymous gentleman.

We learn that although the French have landed, the King of
France has returned home to deal with an urgent problem there.
This easy removal of a problem here may strike you as a bit
clumsy, but look what it sets up.

With France gone, we identify Cordelia as the virtual head of
the invasion.  That's not as bad as the possibility of
foreigners beating the English in battle.  We can root for
Cordelia and her army, Lear, and the "good guys." Kent is told
of Cordelia's reaction to the news of her father's situation.
She grows even more virtuous in our eyes.  (Remember, we have
not seen Cordelia since the very first scene.)

Like just about everyone else, Kent looks to the heavens to
discover the rulers of man's fate.  How could three such
different daughters be produced by the same parent?

Kent tells us that Lear is now in Dover.  In lucid moments, the
mad king remembers his harsh judgment of Cordelia and is now too
ashamed to go to her.  Kent will lead the gentleman to Lear to
do the job of persuasion, while he attends to other matters.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT IV, SCENE IV

When we last saw Cordelia, she was leaving in disgrace.  Now, as
Queen of France, she enters with drums, fanfare, attendants, and
all the splendor of her position.  What a sight, and what a
reward for our patience.

NOTE:  This is the first we see, too, of those French forces
we've been hearing about.  If we are to believe that there is a
battle brewing, we need some demonstration of a worthy foe.  The
grand entrance to this scene does just that.

We have high hopes for Cordelia, and we are not disappointed.
Her very first words show compassion and concern for her father.
She describes the report she has received of his appearance,
dressed with roadside weeds as he wanders about madly singing
away.

Cordelia asks a doctor if there is any hope.  Is Lear too far
gone?  Can he be cured?  The doctor's answer is brief.  Rest and
the healing power of "nature" are the only things that might be
effective.  Cordelia vows to find Lear and provide that
relief.

Told that the British forces are getting closer, she resumes her
role as leader of the French but joins her cause to her
father's.  In a firm statement she lets us know that the only
purpose of this invasion is the restoration of Lear's throne to
him.  This is important--it gives us even greater justification
for cheering on her side.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT IV, SCENE V

The nonmilitary conflict is heating up, too.  Regan has received
Goneril's messenger, Oswald, and is told that Albany is
preparing his troops, even though Goneril "is the better
soldier" (line 3).

But Regan is more concerned about Edmund.  She tries to find out
what is going on between him and her sister.  Oswald, however,
is uncooperative:  he will not show her Goneril's letter to
Edmund that he is carrying.

Regan goes so far as to tell Oswald that she is better suited,
being a widow, to marry Edmund.  There is no question of this
woman's lust and passion for that evil man.

She gives Oswald a sign of her devotion to pass along to Edmund
when he meets him.  Moreover, should Oswald come across
Gloucester, the vindictive Regan offers a reward for killing
that traitor.

Oswald accepts the commission, and departs.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT IV, SCENE VI

After the interplay of two villains, each outdoing the other in
hypocritical protest of sincere intention, the scene shifts to
Edgar's gentle treatment of Gloucester.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-80

Edgar convinces his father by word pictures that they have
arrived at their destination.  He leads him to the supposed edge
of the cliff and stands aside while the old man prepares to make
his final peace.

Gloucester gives away his last earthly goods, and consigns his
fate to the higher powers.  He could not go on without losing
faith in the gods.  With a final blessing on his lost son, he
throws himself forward and faints.

NOTE:  For all its pathos, the moment is also funny.  The
two-foot fall and the subsequent dialogue are lighter than
anything we've had since the Fool departed.  It's not broad
comedy, but it does provide some relief from the heaviness of
the tragedy that is building steadily.  Simply because you're
observing a grand tragedy, don't reject the value of comic
elements.  A little laughter will clear the air and pave the way
for the tears later.

At the same time, it's worth comparing Gloucester's route with
Lear's "journey" of despair.  Gloucester has chosen suicide;
Lear goes mad.  Is one worse than the other?

Edgar convinces Gloucester that he is alive and that a miracle
has occurred.  Ironically, a man-made miracle has:  the blind
earl has regained hope and faith.  He doesn't know that all this
has been his son's doing, and Edgar perpetuates the deception by
assuring him that "...the clearest gods...  have preserved thee"
(lines 73-74).  That's good enough for Gloucester.  He vows to
suffer his affliction without complaint until he comes to a
natural end.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 80-199

We have not seen Lear for some time, although we have had a
recent description of his condition.  Now he enters and fits the
description to the letter.  He is covered with weeds, a
"natural" king.  There are traces of his former bearing and
authority, but there is even greater humility.

Lear tells us that he knows he was surrounded by poor advisers
when he was the absolute monarch.  Then his clothing and royal
trappings kept him from seeing true conditions.  Now he has
learned, he has gained vision and can suffer pain.

Gloucester recognizes the voice.  It is the king.

"Ay, every inch a king" (line 106), replies Lear, who then
begins a mad discourse in which he links lust and adultery to
the violence that has taken place.  Hidden in his mad prattling
are tremendous insights, but also anger and resignation.

The pathetic scene of the madman, Lear, and the blind man,
Gloucester, continues with the earl showing his continued
devotion to his master.  Lear offers a topsy-turvy commentary on
his condition, which lands right side up every now and then.  He
knows the difference between his former condition as "something"
and his present state as "nothing." He knows the difference
between fancy clothes that hide villains, and nakedness that
sometimes shows true worth.  He does not want to seem to be what
he isn't and he starts to undress.

Lear recognizes Gloucester, and he offers his own eyes to the
blind earl.  In his philosophical outlook, Lear can see that we
create our own misfortunes.  This is a bleak outlook.  Why
shouldn't "...we cry that we are come / To this great stage of
fools" (lines 179-80), he asks before he is overcome by his
madness and turns to thoughts of revenge.  He knows his enemy,
including his sons-in-law, whom he would kill, kill, kill, kill,
kill!" (line 184).

Lear sees himself as "The natural fool of fortune" (line 188).
He compares his bodily pain to his mental anguish as madness
again seizes him.  With attendants in pursuit, this sad,
tortured creature runs off, babbling.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 200-281

One of Cordelia's men tells Edgar that the battle will soon take
place, but the queen, Cordelia, will stay right there until her
father is brought to her.

Gloucester repeats his vow to stay alive.  For now, Edgar will
find some shelter for him.

But first Oswald comes upon them.  His immediate thought is for
his "fortune," the reward Regan offered.  Not only that, but
Oswald believes he will rise in everyone's opinion if he slays
this enemy.

But Oswald has not reckoned with the real Edgar behind the
beggar's rags, who mocks the steward in a peasant's voice.  He
even uses a peasant's weapon, some sort of cudgel, to mortally
wound the pretentious steward.

In a single gesture of decency before he dies, Oswald asks his
opponent to deliver the letters he carries to "Edmund Earl of
Gloucester." The impact of that declaration must have shaken
both Edgar and his father.  Just as important is the precedent
set by this villain's dying act of goodness.  We can expect to
find it repeated in this play with its constant parallels.

Edgar reads the letter.  He learns that Goneril has pledged
herself to Edmund and hopes that the battle will take care of
the problem of her present husband.  If not, Edmund will have to
rescue her in the only way possible.

But Edgar has developed his own sense of cunning, and he saves
the letter for use as ammunition later.  When the time comes,
he'll take care of Goneril and serve his own interests.

As drums signal the battle approaching, Edgar leads the
sorrowing Gloucester away as the old man laments the king's
madness and his own grief.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT IV, SCENE VII

At long last, we see Cordelia reunited with her father.  It is
certainly an emotional scene, but it's more than a play for
sympathy.  As it unfolds, notice how carefully each step is
taken, a striking contrast from the opening, banishment scene.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-43

Cordelia's gentle nature and essential goodness are on display
as she discusses with both Kent and the doctor Lear's condition.
She is told that the king has slept long enough to risk waking
him.  Try to remember her posture in the opening scene.
Questions of stubbornness, conniving, and the like melt away as
she proceeds toward the moment of reunion.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 44-97

To the accompaniment of gentle music and Cordelia's kiss, Lear
awakens.  At first he thinks he has died and gone to heaven or
purgatory.  Is this another miracle, like Gloucester's?  He
thinks that Cordelia is a spirit and, to the audience, she must
indeed appear so.

Gradually he comes to his senses and he knows that he is in the
presence of the daughter he has wronged.  He kneels before her
in a penitent gesture, but she asks him to rise and give her his
benediction.

Lear's return to sanity is evident as he acknowledges that he is
"a very foolish fond old man" (line 60).  He knows that he is
not completely out of the woods, but he can identify Cordelia.

Riveting the audience by the concentration of kindness taking
place on the stage, Lear admits that he has wronged Cordelia,
but she rebuffs the suggestion.  Total reconciliation is at
hand.

Lear is so humbled that all he can do is repeat that he is old
and foolish, as the shining heroine, whom he always loved most,
leads him off to further rest.

Moved by the scene he has witnessed, Kent prepares to join the
fighting forces.  He is told, meanwhile, that Cornwall is dead
and that Edmund has taken his place at the head of Cornwall's
troops.  It is rumored that Edgar has vanished and was seen with
the Earl of Kent in Germany!  We might welcome this touch of
irony as a bit of relief after the heavy sentiment just
experienced on the stage.

Wearied from his struggles to support Lear and act as the needed
go-between, Kent departs to face whatever the battle will
decide.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT V, SCENE I

The long-awaited battle is about to take place.  During the
final moments of preparation for the British forces, Edmund
strides forward, very much the master of the situation.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-17

Edmund sends an officer to see what's happening with Albany's
troops.  Regan is more concerned with another situation:  she
tries to get Edmund to assure her of his faithfulness to her and
his disinterest in Goneril.  Her jealousy and desperation are
apparent.  Edmund gives her his pledge as Albany and Goneril
enter with their troops.

NOTE:  The two sides are again lined up on the stage, with
Edmund somewhere between or perhaps traveling back and forth.
Once more the arrangement of characters on the stage tells part
of the story.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 18-37

The depth of Goneril's lust for Edmund is revealed in an aside
as they enter.  She would rather lose the battle than lose her
lover to her sister.

Albany uses this opportunity to clarify his position.  He tells
us that he fights to repel the French invaders, not to oppose
the king.  The three villains--Edmund, Regan, and Goneril--can
hardly agree with him fast enough.

As they are dispersing to take care of final arrangements, Regan
manipulates Goneril into coming with her to her tent, despite
the older sister's awareness of the discussion that awaits her
there.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 38-68

As Albany lingers for a moment, Edgar, still disguised as a
beggar, enters and asks for a word.  Now is the time to turn
over Goneril's treacherous letter to Edmund.  He does so, but
before Albany is allowed to open it, Edgar extracts a promise.
He asks to be allowed to produce a champion to prove the truth
of the letter.

NOTE:  The rules of chivalry come into play here.  Apparently,
an accusation such as the one against Edmund could be challenged
and decided by a duel with someone of equivalent rank.  Even
though he is unknown to Albany, Edgar has obviously piqued his
interest enough to obtain his promise.

Edgar and Albany leave; Edmund appears alone on the stage.  We
learn that he has been, as we might expect, two-faced in his
relationships with Goneril and Regan:  he has sworn faithfulness
to each.  He'll let the battle decide if Goneril will become a
widow and then he'll choose between them.

As for Lear and Cordelia, if they are captured, he has no
intention of letting them live.

In these last moments before the battle, our questions about any
of the characters in the drama should have been answered.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT V, SCENE II

In terms of spoken words, this is the shortest scene in the
play.  What takes place, however, is a strong thrust to
Fortune's wheel.

With the sound of battle music playing in the distance, drums
and colors accompany Cordelia, arm in arm with Lear, followed by
her troops, as they cross through and depart for the battle.

A moment later, Edgar takes his father by the arm.  He is
leading Gloucester to peace, in contrast to Cordelia's unhappy
mission.  Securing a quiet place by a tree, he departs for the
action on the field.

From offstage we hear the sounds of military horns sounding the
charge, sounds of battle and, finally, retreat.

NOTE:  From the brief period of time devoted to it, we can tell
that the actual military conflict offstage is not as important
as the events that led up to it on stage.  We will see the
results shortly.

Edgar returns to tell Gloucester that the French forces have
lost.  Lear and Cordelia have been taken prisoner.  They
themselves must flee to avoid capture.

Gloucester's courage appears to desert him, but Edgar reminds
him that the wheel can still spin in any direction.  He still
believes that it is the gods who decide these things and he
trusts to fate.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ACT V, SCENE III

A work of the magnitude of King Lear demands a truly grand
finale.  Shakespeare has tantalized us by leaving all the loose
ends dangling.  And, except for Cornwall's premature death and
the subvillain Oswald's dispatch to the netherworld, all the
characters are still on hand.  The good ones are capable of
heroic acts; the villains await their just desserts.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 1-25

A procession of grand proportions, equal to or greater even than
Lear's first entrance, takes place as Edmund marches onto the
stage, followed by his troops and the captive Lear and
Cordelia.

His first act is to order the captives taken away to detention
until their fate is decided.  But before they leave, Cordelia
confesses that she is saddened at this turn of Fortune's wheel,
not so much for herself as for her father.  But Lear does not
share her view.  He offers her a picture of prison as a welcome
retreat from the cares they have recently shared.  That they may
face death doesn't enter into the picture of the happy life he
paints for her.  He is calm and perhaps still a little mad when
he tells her that they will have nothing to do but watch the
rise and fall of the "great ones" (line 18).

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 26-39

The minute they are gone, Edmund calls one of his officers into
his confidence.  A commission is given.  It is the order to do
away with the prisoners before they are formally judged and
condemned.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 40-106

As the officer leaves, a trumpet announces the entrance of
Albany, Goneril, Regan, and more troops.

Albany has apparently read Goneril's love letter to Edmund,
which he received from the disguised Edgar.  But before he deals
with that, he calls for the captives.  When Edmund tells him
that they are in custody, Albany rebukes him for his presumption
in making that decision.

Now Regan steps forward and informs everyone that Edmund is
acting on her authority.  When that authority is challenged, the
two sisters snarl at each other.  They begin to fight over
Edmund, although Regan confesses that she is feeling ill.

It doesn't matter, Albany tells them.  In fact, he accuses
Edmund of treason and names Goneril as his accessory.  Unaware
that Edmund's title is not really merited or secure, Albany
extends to him the courtesy of a chivalrous defense and orders
the trumpets to announce the call for a champion to challenge
Edmund.

NOTE:  The complicated rules of chivalry demand that the rank of
the challenger be no lower than that of the defendant.  In other
words, you don't prove anything if you beat someone less
"worthy." Is that really any different from today?  Modern
weapons are more sophisticated, but the value system has
endured.

Regan cries out that she is indeed sick, and Goneril in an aside
lets us know that she has administered the cause.  As Edmund
puts on a show of bravado, Regan is led offstage to Albany's
tent.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 107-151

A herald enters and reads the challenge.  The trumpet is sounded
three times and Edgar, armed and disguised, enters to present
his qualifications.  Without identifying himself, he claims
nobility equal to his opponent.  He accuses Edmund of crimes
against the gods, against his father and his brother, against
Albany; he calls Edmund a traitor from head to toe and vows to
prove it in combat with him.

Edmund is so confident of himself that he accepts the challenge
of his anonymous opponent.  They fight.  Edmund loses and is
fatally wounded, but he does not die instantly.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 152-222

Goneril rages at this trick that has cost her her lover.  Albany
silences her by flaunting her "love note" at her accusingly.
Sneering at him and his charges, she rushes offstage.  Seeing
her desperation, Albany sends one of his officers to keep an eye
on her.

As Edmund lies dying, he asks the identity of his opponent and
acknowledges that the accusations were indeed true.  Edgar,
rapidly growing in heroic stature, identifies himself and offers
some philosophic views on this outcome.  He doesn't accept the
gods as fickle--they are just.  Something of a prig, he does
sound a bit tactless when he attributes Gloucester's punishment
to the adulterous act that produced Edmund.

But Edmund hasn't the strength for debate as he lies dying.  He
agrees, noting that "The wheel is come full circle" (line
175).

Albany welcomes Edgar, who tells him his recent history--how he
came upon Gloucester and cared for him and never revealed
himself until recently.  Has this been some sort of penance?
Some "mortification of the flesh" to ennoble Edgar further in
our minds?

Edgar's final act of revelation came just as Gloucester came to
his own end, dying between the contrasting emotions of joy and
grief.

Edgar also reveals that he had come across Kent during the
battle and discovered the service he had performed for Lear.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 223-257

An attendant bursts in, shouting and clutching a bloody knife in
his hand.  Goneril has confessed to poisoning her sister, and
has killed herself.  The irony of the death of his two fiancees
and his own doom is not lost on Edmund.

Another voice of impending death is heard as Kent enters "To bid
my king and master aye good night" (line 235).  This reminds
Albany of Cordelia and Lear.  Where has Edmund sent them?

As the bodies of Goneril and Regan are brought out, Edmund is
prompted to do a good deed.  He reveals that he has given a
written order for the death of Lear and Cordelia but he has
changed his mind.  As an officer hurries off toward the
prisoners, Edmund describes the commission he had given with
Goneril's agreement:  Cordelia was to be hanged and blamed as a
suicide.  The dying Edmund is then carried off.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  LINES 238-327

Why has Edmund delayed revealing his plot against the captives?
Did it take the sight of the dead Goneril and Regan to prompt
him to act "Despite of [his] own nature"?  Any credit he might
receive in heaven fades in an instant as Lear now enters with
the dead Cordelia in his arms.

The heartrending scene of reconciliation between father and
estranged daughter was only a preview of the sorrow we now
witness.  Lear is powerful and yet pitiful in his anguish as he
croons over Cordelia's body.  Grasping at the tiniest hope, he
calls for a mirror to see if he can detect the faintest breath.
Even a feather.  If it stirs, there is a chance.  But she is
gone and Lear can claim only the joy of having avenged her death
by killing her murderer.

Kent is acknowledged, but no attempt is made to separate Lear
from the body of Cordelia, still cradled in his arms.

A messenger enters and announces that Edmund is dead, but to
Albany this is a trifle.  The duke declares that he may have won
the battle, but he restores absolute power to the rightful
monarch, Lear.

But there is not much time left for Lear.  His final words are
on his tongue as he looks to Cordelia's lips for an indication
of life.  Who can forget how earlier he looked to her lips for
an indication of her love?

The very simplicity, the short, one-syllable words of this last
speech show how weak he has become.  But he is hopeful to the
last.

Do you see this?  Look on her.  Look, her lips,

Look there, look there.

(lines 311-12)

Lear dies.

NOTE:  What does he see?  Critics have argued this point
endlessly.  There is really no valid answer but your own.  If
you view the play as pessimistic, you will see a dark vision
through Lear's dying gaze.  But if you find optimism in its
conclusion, you will see a happier sight.  Maybe the truth lies
somewhere between and, like Gloucester, Lear has died between
the two extremes of joy and grief.

Crying that perhaps Lear has only fainted, Edgar rushes to his
side, but Kent stops him.  Do not disturb his final rest.  Lear
has suffered enough.

With Lear gone, Albany relinquishes the responsibility for
ruling England to Kent and Edgar, but Kent refuses.  He has
borne the weight of too much sorrow and will indeed soon follow
his master.

Edgar acknowledges in somber tones that we have all learned from
the tragedy we have witnessed.  Now we can only take up the
burden of future survival.

Lear and his daughters all lie dead on the stage, surrounded by
his nobles and the army that was really always his.  Gloucester
and Edmund have died offstage.

A death march is sounded as the bodies are taken up and the
stage is cleared in a sad recession.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  GLOSSARY

There are many unfamiliar terms, words, and phrases in King
Lear, most of which can be understood from the context in which
they appear.  Some recur frequently and seem strange only
because of usage.  Here are a few that have slightly different
meanings from our present usage.

WHORESON, BASTARD, BASE These were not necessarily curses.  They
were commonly used to describe the origins of birth.  Sometimes
the reference to low birth carried a sting, too.

FORTUNE A holdover from the Middle Ages, the image of the Wheel
of Fortune was a strong one.  It was seen to be the barometer of
man's fate that turned constantly, moving the bottom to the top
and vice versa.

VILLAIN, VILLAINY Our present-day equivalent would probably be
criminal and crime.  There were varying degrees, from an
affectionate use to actual accusation of wrongdoing.  Again,
reading the word in context will provide a clue to the vehemence
intended.

TREACHERY, TRAITOR Any form of betrayal was treachery and the
perpetrator was a traitor.  From the common tattletale to the
commission of major crime of betrayal, the words were commonly
applied.

MONSTER Another relic of the Middle Ages that Shakespeare and
his contemporaries commonly incorporated into their routine
philosophy.  The personification of disorder was the monster.
An upset or inversion of the ordered world, the benign forces,
was the monstrous, the chaotic.  Grotesque images were
frequently used to represent this manifestation of evil and
disorder.

WIT Wit was more than cleverness.  Wit represented the human
intelligence, the ability to reason.  When someone lost his
reason, his sanity, he lost his wits.  At times it also
indicated cunning and the ability to exploit words to a greater
purpose.

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  THE MESSAGE OF KING LEAR

he theme of King Lear may be stated in psychological as well as
biological terms.  So put, it is the destructive, the ultimately
suicidal character of unregulated passion, its power to carry
human nature back to chaos....

The predestined end of unmastered passion is the suicide of the
species.  That is the gospel according to King Lear.  The play
is in no small measure an actual representation of that process.
The murder-suicide of Regan-Goneril is an example.  But it is
more than a picture of chaos and impending doom.  What is the
remedy for chaos?  it asks.  What can avert the doom?  The
characters who have mastered their passions give us a glimpse of
the answer to those questions.

-Harold C.  Goddard,

The Meaning of Shakespeare, 1951

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ON LEAR

The initial act of the hero is his only act; the remainder is
passion.  An old and weary king, hungry for rest, banishes the
one daughter who would give it to him and plunges at once into
the long, loud night of his catastrophe.  An early recognition
of his error does not save him.  The poet does not wish to save
him, for his instinct is to develop a catastrophe as none has
been developed before or since.

-Mark Van Doren, Shakespeare, 1939

Lear's progress--dramatic and spiritual--lies through a
dissipation of egoism; submission to the cruelty of an
indifferent Nature, less cruel to him than are his own kin; to
ultimate loss of himself in madness.

-Harley Granville-Barker,

Preface to Shakespeare, 1946

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  THE SECONDARY PLOT

The secondary plot fills out a story which would by itself have
been somewhat thin, and it provides a most effective contrast
between its personages and those of the main plot, the tragic
strength and stature being heightened by comparison with the
slighter build of the former.

-A.  C.  Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy, 1983

he subplot simplifies the central action, translating its
concerns into familiar (and therefore easily apprehensible)
verbal and visual patterns.  The subplot is easier to grasp
because its characters tend to account for their sufferings in
traditional moral language; it also pictorializes the main
action, supplying interpreted visual emblems for some of the
play's important themes.

-Bridget Gellert Lyons,

"The subplot simplification in King Lear," from

Some Facets of King Lear, Essays in Prismatic Criticism,

edited by Rosalie L.  Colie and F.  T.  Flahiff, 1974

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  THE STORM

The third act of King Lear, which covers the storm and its
counterpart in human behavior, is a marvellous example of poetic
elaboration for dramatic ends.  At the center of it, at once the
main protagonist and symbol of the spiritual state of a humanity
exposed to fundamental disorder, wrenched out of its "fixed
place" in the "frame of nature," stands the figure of an aged
king.  The intimate dovetailing of personal conflict with
external convulsions has often been noted, and is indeed an
essential part of the conception.  The storm which has broken
out in Lear's mind, the result of his treatment at the hands of
his children, is admirably fused with the description of the
warring elements mainly entrusted to his lips; the external
storm, while exercising upon his aged physique the intolerable
strain under which it finally breaks, is itself a projection of
his inner state, being fused with it as a single poetic
reality.

-D.  A.  Traversi, An Approach to Shakespeare, 1969

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ON RELIGIOUS VALUES

The play is not, as some of our grandfathers believed,
pessimistic and pagan:  it is rather an attempt to provide an
answer to the undermining of traditional ideas by the new
philosophy that called all in doubt.  Shakespeare goes back to a
pre-Christian world and builds up from the nature of man
himself, and not from revealed religion, those same moral and
religious ideals that were being undermined.  In a world of
lust, cruelty and greed, with extremes of wealth and poverty,
man reduced to his essentials needs not wealth, nor power, nor
even physical freedom, but rather patience, stoical fortitude,
and love; needs perhaps, above all, mutual forgiveness, the
exchange of charity, and those sacrifices on which the gods, if
there are any gods, throw incense....

-Kenneth Muir, 1972

To me, the clairvoyance of King Lear is hardly distinguishable
from religious insight.  It is not only our profoundest tragedy;
it is also our profoundest expression of an essentially
Christian comment on man's world and his society, using the
terms and benefitting by the formulations of Christian
tradition.

-John Danby, Shakespeare's Doctrine of Nature,

A Study of King Lear, 1964

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ON WOMEN

Men's behavior matters.  But women's behavior is of the essence.
Cordelia "redeems nature from the general curse/which 'twain'
have brought her to" (my italics ['twain']).  The twain are, of
course, Goneril and Regan.  Cordelia redeems nature; Goneril and
Regan are responsible for its "curse." In the rhetoric of the
play, no male is condemned as Goneril is condemned.  A woman who
refuses to uphold the inlaw [benevolent] feminine principle
completely topples the natural order and plunges the world into
chaos.

-Marilyn French,

Shakespeare's Division of Experience, 1983

^^^^^^^^^^
KING LEAR:  ON LANGUAGE

There is, indeed, in King Lear, a kind of irony which is not, to
any important extent, to be found in any other play:  the irony
which lies in the contradiction between the rightness of what is
said and the wrongness of its being said by that particular
character, or in that particular situation, or in that
particular manner.

-Arthur Small, "Character and Society in Lear,"

from Shakespeare:  The Tragedies,

edited by Alfred Harbage, 1964

                               THE END